English Grammar Understanding the Basics Second Part

English  Grammar Understanding the Basics

Test yourself 28.4Underlinethenounphrasesineachof the sentencesbelow.Inthisexercise,thenounphrasewillalways
consistof determiner +adjective+noun. Some sentencesmayhavemore thanonenounphrase.
Sample: My young cousin got on that scary roller-coaster.Getting started (answers on p. 119)



1. That adorable baby was born in a rundown
house in a small town.
2. The elderly woman wrote a short novel.
3. His crazy adventure began with those
strange letters.
4. Some Enchanted Evening is a beautiful song
from a classic show.
5. Jackie’s famous father is a talented
immigrant from a South American country.Lesson 28: The basic structure of noun phrases115
More practice (answers on the website)
6. These old cookies are stale.
7. A little attention often helps a
bruised ego.
8. Each passing moment is a terrible waste.
9. Our new house sits on the outermost edge of
this secluded island.
10. Many submitted manuscripts are
piled up on the cluttered desk of the ¢nicky
editor.Test yourself 28.5For each of the underlined noun phrases below, decide if it is: determiner + noun or determiner +
adjective + noun.

Sample: He was not in a reasonable mood.	determiner + adjective + noun
Getting started (answers on p. 119) 1. The pleasure in his voice was real.	.........................................................................................................
2. That annoying customer still got a good deal.	.........................................................................................................
3. Count your blessings!	.........................................................................................................
4. Jonathan’s jacket is brand new.	..........................................................................................................
5. He plays with his new gadget every day.	..........................................................................................................
More practice (answers on the website) 6. His divorce received much publicity.	..........................................................................................................
7. I want the latest model for my o⁄ce.	..........................................................................................................
8. Let’s hope this terrible weather changes soon.	..........................................................................................................
9. I don’t care for her new attitude.	..........................................................................................................
10. The motorcade passed by quickly.	..........................................................................................................

Here are some examples where the noun phrase consists of a determiner, more than one
adjective, and a noun (the whole noun phrase is underlined):
23. The dull brown liquid spilled onto his priceless antique carpet.
24. Elderly, in¢rm individuals really need that important health bene¢t.
25. Aworn checkered apron hung by the sagging, unpainted kitchen door.Test yourself 28.6Underline the noun phrases in each of the sentences below. In this exercise, the noun phrase will
always consist of determiner + adjective(s) + noun. Some sentences may have more than one noun
phrase.
Sample:The pushy, aggressive salesman at the automobile dealership was not helpful.Getting started (answers on p. 119)
1. The small white dog ran away.
2. The close friends loved watching the old,
classic movies.
3. Some Japanese cars are rated very highly.
4. My lovely niece arrived in a brand new
convertible.
5. Those pesky £ies ruined myAustralian
vacation.U N I T 9 : N O U N P H R A S E S116

More practice (answers on the website)
6. Your beautiful shiny hair is enviable.
7. The crazy idea of your nutty sister turned
out to be not so crazy after all.
8. The Siamese cat was extremely sociable.
9. My reliable old friend made a terrible
mistake.
10. This poor, hungry man is craving a hearty
hot meat sandwich.
Don’t forget that a noun phrase doesn’t have to have a determiner. Here are some examples in which the noun phrases (underlined) consist only of adjective(s) and a noun:
26. Cold drinks are delicious.
27. Talented, creative actors don’t always become big stars.
28. Individual rights are important to preserve.
Proper nouns generally don’t have adjectives or determiners in front of them. *creative
Nicole, for example, is ungrammatical.
Sentence 7, They laughed, is yet another kind of noun phrase. In this case, the noun
phrase consists of just a pronoun, they. (See Unit 7 to remind yourself about pronouns.)Quick tip 28.3A noun phrase can consist of just a pronoun, for example he or them.Notice that you can have a determiner before a noun, for example, the monkey, but you’d
never put one before a pronoun: *the he, for example, is ungrammatical.We also do not
usually put an adjective before a pronoun:*pretty she, for example, is ungrammatical.Test yourself 28.7Underline the noun phrase in each of the sentences below. In this exercise, the noun phrase will
always consist of a pronoun. Some sentences may have more than one noun phrase.
Sample:You are always good to her.Getting started (answers on p. 120)
1. He ran away.
2. I love watching them.
3. They were extremely sociable.
4. We want to invite you over.
5. He did it and didn’t even tell us about it.More practice (answers on the website)
6. It made me curious.
7. She left us confused.
8. I am better for it.
9. You will help me, won’t you?
10. They left yesterday.
To sum up, the kinds of noun phrases we’ve discussed are listed below.While there are
more kinds of noun phrases, what we’ve done here is to show you some basic ones.Lesson 28: The basic structure of noun phrases117
noun (example: water)
adjective + noun (example: cold water)
determiner + noun (example: a teacher)
determiner + adjective(s) + noun (example: a smart teacher)
pronoun (example: she)Test yourself 28.8Identify the part of speech of each word in each of the underlined noun phrases below. It will be
either: noun (alone), determiner + noun, adjective(s) + noun, determiner + adjective(s) + noun, or
pronoun (alone).

Sample: He spoke in a friendly, cooperative manner.	determiner + adjectives + noun
Getting started (answers on p. 120) 1. The pleasure in your voice was real.	..................................................................................................
2. I still have that infamous necklace.	..................................................................................................
3. I forgot to mention it to you.	..................................................................................................
4. Mr. Bentley is a successful businessman.	..................................................................................................
5. Cobras are dangerous snakes.	..................................................................................................
More practice (answers on the website) 6. Don’t forget to buy a low-fat turkey sandwich!	..................................................................................................
7. The co¡ee is too hot to drink.	..................................................................................................
8. She buys a pair of new shoes every year.	..................................................................................................
9. He took a cruise with his rich, generous uncle.	..................................................................................................
10. You may not know that whales are mammals.	..................................................................................................
Test yourself 28.9 – Grand finale

Underline the noun phrases in the sentences below.There may be more than one in a sentence.
Sample: I am sharing the relevant information with you.Getting started (answers on p. 120)
1. Joe traveled often.
2. The blazing sun can cause damage
to your skin.
3. The unlucky scientist walked
back.
4. We turned and left.
5. Those calculating
politicians responded
evasively.More practice (answers on the website)
6. The beaches of Tahiti are high on my list of
places to visit.
7. Cigarettes are not good for your health,
don’t you agree?
8. I think you should recommend this book to
them.
9. Disneyland is a popular destination for
European tourists.
10. Arnold hurried in.U N I T 9 : N O U N P H R A S E S118
Answer keys: Test yourself, Getting startedquestions – Unit 9Test yourself 28.11. Pirates were looking for treasure.
2. Furniture can be expensive.
3. Boys often want to be policemen.
4. People think money is useful.
5. Jeremy was eating rice.Test yourself 28.21. The winner was overjoyed.
2. The crowd dispersed peacefully.
3. A minute can seem like an eternity.
4. The dentist gave the patient a toothbrush.
5. The couple forgot to tip the waiter.Test yourself 28.31. His doorman hailed a taxi.
2. As the doctor toured the ward, a group of her interns went along.
3. Your daughter looks great in this picture.
4. Some people keep their jewelry in a safe deposit box.
5. Jack’s friend is an artist.Test yourself 28.41. That adorable baby was born in a rundown house in a small town.
2. The elderly woman wrote a short novel.
3. His crazy adventure began with those strange letters.
4. Some Enchanted Evening is a beautiful song from a classic show.
5. Jackie’s famous father is a talented immigrant from a South American country.

Test yourself 28.5
1. The pleasure in his voice was real.	determiner + noun
2. That annoying customer still got a good deal.	determiner + adjective + noun
3. Count your blessings!	determiner + noun
4. Jonathan’s jacket is brand new.	determiner + noun
5. He plays with his new gadget every day.	determiner + adjective + noun
Test yourself 28.6

1. The small white dog ran away.
2. The close friends loved watching the old, classic movies.119
3. Some Japanese cars are rated very highly.
4. My lovely niece arrived in a brand new convertible.
5. Those pesky £ies ruined myAustralian vacation.Test yourself 28.71. He ran away.
2. I love watching them.
3. They were extremely sociable.
4. We want to invite you over.
5. He did it and didn’t even tell us about it.

Test yourself 28.8
1. The pleasure in your voice was real.	determiner + noun
2. I still have that infamous necklace.	determiner + adjective + noun
3. I forgot to mention it to you.	pronoun
4. Mr. Bentley is a successful businessman.	noun
5. Cobras are dangerous snakes.	adjective + noun
Test yourself 28.9

1. Joe traveled often.
2. The blazing sun can cause damage to your skin.
3. The unlucky scientist walked back.
4. We turned and left.
5. Those calculating politicians responded evasively.☞ FOR A REVIEW EXERCISE OF THIS UNIT, SEE THE WEBSITE.U N I T 9 : N O U N P H R A S E S120
UNIT 10: PREPOSITIONAL PHRASESLesson 29: The basic structure of prepositional
phrasesWhat do you notice about the following sentences?
1. The toy is on the red table.
2. We live near him.
3. The cute guy walked Mary to the corner.
4. The Jones family traveled around Arizona.
Each of these sentences contains a preposition, which is underlined. Here again are the
common prepositions which we listed in Lesson 17:
about beneath into throughout
above beside like till
across between near to
after beyond of toward(s)
against by o¡ under
along despite on until
among down onto up
around during out upon
at for over with
before from since within
behind in through without
below
What follows a preposition? In sentences 1^4, the prepositions are followed by:
5. the red table (determiner + adjective + noun)
6. him (pronoun)
7. the corner (determiner + noun)
8. Arizona (proper noun)
As you may remember from Lesson 28, each of these is a kind of noun phrase. In fact,
a preposition is always followed by a noun phrase, called the object of the preposition,
and the preposition and its noun phrase form a unit which is called aprepositionalphrase.Quick tip 29.1A prepositional phrase consists of a preposition plus a noun phrase, for example in the
closet.We don’t have to list the di¡erent kinds of noun phrases in Quick tip 29.1, because we’ve
already identi¢ed them in Lesson 28; we can just refer to noun phrases in general. So it’s
really useful to have this concept of a noun phrase, and it’s a concept that you’ll see come
up again in other lessons.121
Here are some more examples of sentences with prepositional phrases (underlined):
9. Let’s carry the sofa into the house.
10. That makes sense to us.
11. There was a small lamp on her dresser.
12. Jeanie was living in NewYork.
13. The boss had no love for his employees.
You can see that each prepositional phrase consists of a preposition and a noun phrase.Test yourself 29.1Underline the prepositional phrases in the sentences below. Look for the preposition that begins
the prepositional phrase.
Sample: He knew a lot about that subject.Getting started (answers on p. 125)
1. The fabric was between the boxes.
2. She always eats her lunch with a methodical
thoroughness.
3. There was a temple near the hotel.
4. The gift was for a close friend.
5. The congressman is speaking to the press.More practice (answers on the website)
6. My son had lunch at McDonald’s.
7. She was sitting by the open window.
8. I never heard from him again.
9. The little boy was hiding under the round
table.
10. She traveled without her husband.Test yourself 29.2Here are the same sentences as in Test yourself 29.1. This time, underline the preposition with
a solid line and the noun phrase with a squiggly line within each of the prepositional phrases
in the sentences below.
Sample: He knew a lot about that subject:Getting started (answers on p. 125)
1. The fabric was between the boxes.
2. She always eats her lunch with a methodical
thoroughness.
3. There was a temple near the hotel.
4. The gift was for a close friend.
5. The congressman is speaking to the press.More practice (answers on the website)
6. My son had lunch at McDonald’s.
7. She was sitting by the open window.
8. I never heard from him again.
9. The little boy was hiding under the round
table.
10. She traveled without her husband.To enhance your understandingLet’s compare two sentences with the word up:
14. I looked up your phone number.
15. I walked up the steep hill.
These sentences certainly look very similar. Each has the word up followed by a noun
phrase. But in fact, the sentences are different. For one thing, in sentence 14, up can be
moved to the other side of the noun phrase without changing its meaning:
U N I T 1 0 : P R E P O S I T I O N A L P H R A S E S122
Can a sentence contain more than one prepositional phrase? We started our discussion
of prepositional phrases with the following sentences, each of which had only one prepositional phrase (underlined):
24. The toy is on the red table.
25. We live near him.
26. The cute guy walked Mary to the corner.
27. The Jones family traveled around Arizona.
We can expand these sentences, adding another propositional phrase (underlined) to each:
28. The toy is on the red table in the living room.
29. We live near him in Manhattan.
30. The cute guy from Argentina walked Mary to the corner.
31. The Jones family traveled around Arizona in a rented minivan.
In theory, there’s no limit to the number of prepositional phrases that a sentence can
have.Take a look at one with quite a few prepositional phrases:
32. They landed the plane in a grassy ¢eld near the park by the river in San
Francisco.
In reality, however, each sentence we say has a ¢nite length ^ we have to stop talking at
some point!16. I looked your phone number up.
In sentence 15, up cannot be moved:
17. *I walked the steep hill up.
Also, in sentence 14, look up is a unit; up feels closely connected to look. In fact, look upcan be replaced by a single verb and still have more or less the same meaning, for example,I researched your phone number. In sentence 14, up is part of the verb and is called a verb
particle. You may recall that we talked about these verb plus particle combinations inLesson 11, where we said they were called phrasal verbs. In sentence 15, up is not
connected to the verb, so it is not a particle; rather, it is a preposition.
Here are some more examples of sentences with verb particles. Notice that in each of
these cases, the verb plus particle can be replaced by a single verb and the particle can be
moved.
18a. Her husband carried out the garbage. (Her husband removed the garbage.)
18b. Her husband carried the garbage out.
19a. The criminal covered up the crime. (The criminal hid the crime.)
19b. The criminal covered the crime up.
20a. Don’t just brush off her objections. (Don’t just dismiss her objections.)
20b. Don’t just brush her objections off.
In contrast, here are some more examples of sentences with prepositions. Notice that in
each case, the preposition cannot be moved to the other side of its noun phrase.
21a. He looked out the door.
21b. *He looked the door out.
22a. The hiker slowly walked up the hill.
22a. *The hiker slowly walked the hill up.
23a. Take the pot off the stove.
23b. *Take the pot the stove off.
As we discussed above, the preposition is tied to the noun phrase following it, forming a
prepositional phrase.Lesson 29: The basic structure of prepositional phrases123
Test yourself 29.3Underline the prepositional phrases in the sentences below. A sentence may contain more than one
prepositional phrase. Look for the preposition that begins each prepositional phrase.
Sample: She could see the light of the ¢re in the darkness beyond her tent.Getting started (answers on p. 125)
1. Andy ran into the ¢eld across the
road.
2. That ¢rst winter had been spent in New
Hampshire.
3. She told the story of the night she ¢rst
arrived at the house.
4. The lady in the red dress bought a bottle of
perfume with her credit card.
5. I met my long lost friend at the
airport.More practice (answers on the website)
6. Sally arrived in New Orleans around
midnight.
7. My uncle walked into the o⁄ce and
breathed a sigh of relief.
8. We went to see the levee along the
Mississippi River.
9. I saw this big ship on the Mediterranean Sea
disappear beyond the horizon.
10. To some people, that is one of the greatest
movies ever made.U N I T 1 0 : P R E P O S I T I O N A L P H R A S E S124
Answer keys: Test yourself, Getting startedquestions – Unit 10Test yourself 29.11. The fabric was between the boxes.
2. She always eats her lunch with a methodical thoroughness.
3. There was a temple near the hotel.
4. The gift was for a close friend.
5. The congressman is speaking to the press.Test yourself 29.21. The fabric was between the boxes:2. She always eats her lunch with a methodical thoroughness:3. There was a temple near the hotel:4. The gift was for a close friend:5. The congressman is speaking to the press:Test yourself 29.31. Andy ran into the ¢eld across the road.
2. That ¢rst winter had been spent in New Hampshire.
3. She told the story of the night she ¢rst arrived at the house.
4. The lady in the red dress bought a bottle of perfume with her credit card.
5. I met my long lost friend at the airport.☞ FOR A REVIEW EXERCISE OF THIS UNIT, SEE THE WEBSITE.125
UNIT 11: VERB PHRASESLesson 30: The basic structure of verb phrasesRemember the sentence,The little boy laughed? As we talked about earlier,The little boyis a noun phrase (see Lesson 28) and laughed is a verb phrase. There are di¡erent kinds
of verb phrases, and we can begin to discover them by seeing what we can substitute for
the verb phrase, laughed, in this sentence. The underlined portions of the sentences
below are all verb phrases, and any one of them can replace laughed in the sentence,The little boylaughed.
1. The little boy left.
2. The little boy chased the ball.
3. The little boy chased the red ball.
4. The little boy chased it.
5. The little boy chased Henry.
Of course, there are lots of things that cannot replace laughed in this sentence, for
example:
6. *The little boy his extremely.
7. *The little boy near from.
8. *The little boy they.
You’re probably not surprised to learn that his extremely, near from, and they are not verb
phrases.
Have you noticed anything that all the underlined verb phrases in sentences 1^5 have
in common? Each verb phrase has a verb. In fact, in sentence 1, the verb phrase has nothing in it but a verb, left. A verb phrase may also have other words, as you can see in
sentences 2^5, but the least that every verb phrase has to have is a verb. (See Unit 2 to
remind yourself about verbs.)Quick tip 30.1Every verb phrase contains a verb, for example laughs, left.In sentences 1^5, the verb is the ¢rst word in the verb phrase and is its most
important part.Test yourself 30.1Underline the verb phrase in each of the sentences below. In this exercise, the verb phrase will
consist of only a verb.
Sample: The family arrived.Getting started (answers on p. 135)
1. Freddy disappeared.
2. A young woman cried.
3. The soldiers wait.
4. I slept.
5. The little girl smiled.126
More practice (answers on the website)
6. The music stopped.
7. We agree.
8. Last night the guests left.
9. Time £ies.
10. A problem arose.
If we look at sentences 2^5, we see that a verb phrase can have more in it than just a verb.
Let’s start with sentence 2,Thelittle boy chased the ball.The verb phrase is:
9. chased the ball (verb + determiner + noun)
You may remember from Lesson 28 that determiner + noun is a kind of noun phrase.
Thus, in this sentence, the verb phrase consists of a verb followed by one kind of noun
phrase.
Let’s look at the verb phrases in sentences 3^5:
10. chased the red ball (verb + determiner + adjective + noun)
11. chased it (verb + pronoun)
12. chased Henry (verb + noun)
You can see that in each case, the verb phrase consists of a verb followed by a noun phrase.Quick tip 30.2A verb phrase can consist of a verb plus a noun phrase, for example chased the ball.Again, we don’t have to list the di¡erent kinds of noun phrases here, because we’ve
already listed them in Lesson 28; we can just refer to noun phrases in general.Test yourself 30.2Underline the verb phrase in each of the sentences below. It may help to ¢rst ¢nd the verb, which is
the ¢rst word of these verb phrases. In each sentence here, the verb phrase consists of a verb +
noun phrase.
Sample:We welcomed them.Getting started (answers on p. 135)
1. He created a monster.
2. Frank broke the plate.
3. Sherry and I left the house.
4. The detective examined the old broken
doorknob.
5. We resent those comments.More practice (answers on the website)
6. I read an interesting book.
7. Their younger sister crossed the hall.
8. The Australian swimming team defeated
the French.
9. The rich wife bought some insurance.
10. Courtney ordered soup.Test yourself 30.3Here are the same sentences as inTest yourself 30.2.This time, in each sentence underline the verb
with a solid line and the noun phrase within each verb phrase with a squiggly line.
Sample:We welcomed them:Lesson 30: The basic structure of verb phrases127
Getting started (answers on p. 135)
1. He created a monster.
2. Frank broke the plate.
3. Sherry and I left the house.
4. The detective examined the old broken
doorknob.
5. We resent those comments.More practice (answers on the website)
6. I read an interesting book.
7. Their younger sister crossed the hall.
8. The Australian swimming team defeated
the French.
9. The rich wife bought some insurance.
10. Courtney ordered soup.
In Lesson 9, we talked about the fact that some verbs are action verbs, like run, write,
and discover, while others are linking verbs, like be, feel, and become. The verb phrases
we’ve looked at so far have all contained action verbs.Verb phrases with linking verbs are
di¡erent from verb phrases with action verbs. Let’s compare two sentences:
11. John saw the teacher.
12. John is the teacher.
In each sentence, the verb phrase is underlined, and each verb phrase consists of a
verb + noun phrase. (Saw and is are the verbs and the teacher is the noun phrase.) But can
you see how the verb phrases in sentences 11 and 12 di¡er? You’ve probably noticed that
in sentence 11, the teacher is receiving the action, but in sentence 12, there is no action
(after all, is is a linking verb, not an action verb). So while the structures of sentences 11
and 12 appear to be similar on the surface, the sentences are quite di¡erent in meaning.
The following verb phrases with linking verbs are di¡erent in structure as well as in
meaning from verb phrases with action verbs:
13. John is tall.
14. My sister became anxious.
As you (hopefully!) remember from Lesson 16, tall and anxious are adjectives. So when the
verb is a linking verb, it can be followed by an adjective alone. An action verb cannot be
followed by just an adjective, as you can see:
15. *John saw tall.
16. *John saw upset.Quick tip 30.3A verb phrase can consist of a linking verb plus an adjective, for example is tall.An adjective which follows a linking verb and is not part of a noun phrase is traditionally called a predicate adjective, as in the example John is tall (sentence 13). In contrast,
an adjective which is part of a noun phrase is traditionally called an attributive adjective, as in the example John has a tall sister.Test yourself 30.4Underline the verb phrase in each of the sentences below. It may help to ¢rst ¢nd the verb, which
is the ¢rst word of these verb phrases. In each sentence here, the verb phrase consists of linking
verb + adjective.
Sample:We are hungry.U N I T 1 1 : V E R B P H R A S E S128
Getting started (answers on p. 135)
1. The argument was silly.
2. The dress felt comfortable.
3. Steven became sick.
4. The point of this exercise seems obvious.
5. The children got excited.More practice (answers on the website)
6. You look happy.
7. Her voice sounds raspy.
8. She felt embarrassed.
9. The new director proved di⁄cult.
10. Your pie tastes delicious.Test yourself 30.5Here are the same sentences as inTest yourself 30.4.This time, within each verb phrase, underline
the verb with a solid line and the adjective with a squiggly line.
Sample:We are hungry:Getting started (answers on p. 135)
1. The argument was silly.
2. The dress felt comfortable.
3. Steven became sick.
4. The point of this exercise seems obvious.
5. The children got excited.More practice (answers on the website)
6. You look happy.
7. Her voice sounds raspy.
8. She felt embarrassed.
9. The new director proved di⁄cult.
10. Your pie tastes delicious.Test yourself 30.6Underline the verb phrase in each of the sentences below. In some sentences, the verb will be an
action verb alone or it will be followed by a noun phrase (for example, saw the cat). In other
sentences the verb will be a linking verb and may be followed by a noun phrase or by an adjective
alone (for example, looked hungry).
Sample: He prepared his speech.Getting started (answers on p. 135)
1. Brady was a radio engineer.
2. The king sent a clear message.
3. Those £owers look gorgeous.
4. Most able-bodied adults work.
5. I recognized them.More practice (answers on the website)
6. We adore your lovely little girl.
7. She grew impatient.
8. Your son grew.
9. Chuck became an electrical engineer.
10. The diners wanted more bread.Test yourself 30.7Here are the same sentences as in Test yourself 30.6. This time, indicate if the verb phrase you’ve
identi¢ed is: verb (alone), verb + noun phrase, or verb + adjective.
Sample: He prepared his speech. verb + noun phrase

Getting started (answers on p. 136) 1. Brady was a radio engineer.	......................................
2. The king sent a clear message.	......................................

Lesson 30: The basic structure of verb phrases129
3. Those £owers look gorgeous.......................................4. Most able-bodied adults work.......................................5. I recognized them.......................................More practice (answers on the website)
6. We adore your lovely little girl.......................................7. She grew impatient.......................................8. Your son grew.......................................9. Chuck became an electrical engineer.......................................10. The diners wanted more bread.......................................In Lesson 30, we talked about prepositional phrases. Here are some sentences with their
verbs in bold and their prepositional phrases underlined:
20. The Bede family lives around the corner.
21. Please ride to the stable.
22. He headed toward the policeman.
Together, the verb plus prepositional phrase form a verb phrase.To enhance your understandingYou may remember, from Lesson 8, that some verbs, for example smell, can be used as
either action verbs or linking verbs. For example:
17. That dog smells badly. (Meaning, he does a bad job of smelling things.)
18. That dog smells bad. (Meaning, for example, he needs a bath.)
In sentence 17, smell is an action verb; it refers to the dog doing the action of smelling. In
sentence 18, smell is a linking verb; it helps to tell us something about the dog but he’s not
actually doing anything – he’s being something, namely, smelly.
When a verb is used as a linking verb, it can have an adjective, like bad, after it. When it’s
used as an action verb, it can be followed by an adverb, like badly, but not by an adjective.
In Standard American English, good is used only as an adjective. So in Standard American
English, it’s not considered acceptable to say:
19. You did good.
That’s because did is an action verb, and an action verb cannot be completed with just an
adjective. So why do we often hear people saying sentences like You did good? What’s
happening is that people are starting to use good as an adverb, not just as an adjective.
Maybe in the future this usage will become more widely accepted, but right now usinggood as an adverb is not considered Standard American English. (In other words, don’t say
this at a job interview, although it’s fine to say with friends.)
Similarly, people sometimes say, I feel badly, instead of I feel bad, even though they are
using feel here as a linking verb, not as an action verb. They know that usually an adverb,
like badly, follows a verb, but adverbs only directly follow action verbs, not linking verbs.
(When people incorrectly overapply a rule, it’s called hypercorrection.)
We can thus explain the difference between I feel good (‘‘I’m OK’’) and I feel well(‘‘I have the ability to touch effectively’’): in the former sentence feel is a linking verb, in
the latter it is an action verb.
U N I T 1 1 : V E R B P H R A S E S130
Quick tip 30.4A verb phrase can consist of a verb plus a prepositional phrase, for example drove to the mall.Test yourself 30.8Underline the verb phrase in each of the sentences below. It may help to ¢rst ¢nd the verb, which is
the ¢rst word of these verb phrases. In each sentence here, the verb phrase consists of a verb +
prepositional phrase.
Sample: He frequently came to my o⁄ce.Getting started (answers on p. 136)
1. The boat £oated in the water.
2. Janice is from Kansas City.
3. Mrs. Miller is at the beach.
4. He looked for me.
5. The sun appeared above the horizon.More practice (answers on the website)
6. They live near each other.
7. I read between the lines.
8. He learned from his grandfather.
9. She played with her children.
10. Our plane £ew over the Atlantic Ocean.Test yourself 30.9Underline the verb phrase in each of the sentences below.The verb phrase will either be: verb (alone),
verb + noun phrase, or verb + prepositional phrase. Look for the verb to help you get started.
Sample:This is for the whole family.Getting started (answers on p. 136)
1. Elinor rented a car.
2. The clowns never laugh with the audience.
3. The road trip ended.
4. The band played my favorite song.
5. They left at noon.More practice (answers on the website)
6. Brandy’s three-month-old baby smiled.
7. Our neighbors just returned from their
country home.
8. I found the missing piece.
9. We ran through the woods.
10. On holidays, theWatsons entertain.Test yourself 30.10Here are the same sentences as in Test yourself 30.9. This time, indicate if the verb phrase you’ve
identi¢ed is: verb (alone), verb + noun phrase, or verb + prepositional phrase.
Sample:This is for the whole family. verb + prepositional phrase

Getting started (answers on p. 136) 1. Elinor rented a car.	...............................................................................................................................
2. The clowns never laugh with the audience.	...............................................................................................................................
3. The road trip ended.	...............................................................................................................................
4. The band played my favorite song.	...............................................................................................................................
5. They left at noon.	...............................................................................................................................

Lesson 30: The basic structure of verb phrases131

More practice (answers on the website) 6. Brandy’s three-month-old baby smiled.	............................................................................................
7. Our neighbors just returned from their country home.	............................................................................................
8. I found the missing piece.	............................................................................................
9. We ran through the woods.	............................................................................................
10. On holidays,TheWatsons entertain.	.............................................................................................
Test yourself 30.11

Underline the verb phrase in each of the sentences below. The verb phrase will either be: verb +
adjective or verb + prepositional phrase. Look for the verb to help you get started.
Sample:You look pretty.Getting started (answers on p. 136)
1. Her mother looked under the bed.
2. Jan leaped for the shore.
3. The morning seemed peaceful.
4. The stock market fell hard.
5. She arrived with an empty suitcase.More practice (answers on the website)
6. A ¢ght arose among the players.
7. TheTV host appeared annoyed.
8. The bull ran down the narrow street.
9. It rolled under the bed.
10. The show was disastrous.
Can a verb phrase have a verb followed by both a noun phrase and a prepositional phrase?
23. He walked Mary to the corner.
24. The dog chased the man with the umbrella.
In these sentences, the verb phrase consists of a verb followed by a noun phrase and also a
prepositional phrase.Quick tip 30.5A verb phrase can consist of a verb plus a noun phrase plus a prepositional phrase, for
example drove her friend to the mall.Can we say the following?
25. *He walked to the corner Mary.
26. *The dog chased with the umbrella the man.
These sentences show us that when a verb is followed by a noun phrase and a prepositional phrase, the noun phrase always has to be before the prepositional phrase.Test yourself 30.12Underline the verb phrase in each of the sentences below. In each sentence here, the verb phrase
consists of a verb + noun phrase + prepositional phrase. It may help to ¢rst ¢nd the verb, which is
the ¢rst word of these verb phrases.
Sample: I called my wife during intermission.U N I T 1 1 : V E R B P H R A S E S132
Getting started (answers on p. 136)
1. Vivian added calcium to her diet.
2. She knit that blanket from an unusual wool.
3. Her housekeeper rinsed those clothes in
warm water.
4. I like my co¡ee without sugar.
5. Jack and Martha bought a wedding gift at
Macy’s.More practice (answers on the website)
6. He put the steak on the grill.
7. A nervous driver pulled her smoking
Audi into the repair shop.
8. The young man bought his ¢rst
computer with his father’s credit card.
9. He rescued her from the boring party.
10. Alex met his wife near her o⁄ce.Test yourself 30.13Underline the verb phrase in each of the sentences below. The verb phrases will be either: verb
(alone), verb + noun phrase, verb + adjective, verb + prepositional phrase, or verb + noun phrase +
prepositional phrase.
Sample: He prepared his speech.Getting started (answers on p. 137)
1. Your sister is a talented pianist.
2. Their doctor operates at that hospital.
3. Robert threw himself into the battle.
4. The o¡er sounded unrealistic.
5. His mother went to the drugstore.More practice (answers on the website)
6. Yesterday we met a few of our friends.
7. Last night I studied.
8. The professor sounded eloquent.
9. We made a deal over dinner.
10. OnTuesdays Sarah paints in her studio.Test yourself 30.14Here are the same sentences as in Test yourself 30.13. This time, indicate if the verb phrase you’ve
identi¢ed is: verb (alone), verb + noun phrase, verb + adjective, verb + prepositional phrase, or
verb + noun phrase + prepositional phrase.

Sample: He prepared his speech.	verb + noun phrase
Getting started (answers on p. 137) 1. Your sister is a talented pianist.	....................................................................................................................................
2. Their doctor operates at that hospital.	....................................................................................................................................
3. Robert threw himself into the battle.	....................................................................................................................................
4. The o¡er sounded unrealistic.	....................................................................................................................................
5. His mother went to the drugstore.	....................................................................................................................................
More practice (answers on the website) 6. Yesterday we met a few of our friends.	...................................................................................................................................
7. Last night I studied.	...................................................................................................................................
8. The professor sounded eloquent.	...................................................................................................................................
9. We made a deal over dinner.	...................................................................................................................................
10. OnTuesdays Sarah paints in her studio.	...................................................................................................................................

133Lesson 30: The basic structure of verb phrases
To sum up, we list below the kinds of verb phrases we’ve discussed in this lesson:

verb	(example: laughed)
verb + adjective	(example: was happy)
verb + noun phrase	(example: left the room)
verb + preposition phrase	(example: walked to the corner)
verb + noun phrase + preposition phrase	(example: walked Racheltothe corner)

While there are more kinds of verb phrases, what we’ve done here is to show you some
basic ones.U N I T 1 1 : V E R B P H R A S E S134
Answer keys: Test yourself, Getting startedquestions – Unit 11Test yourself 30.11. Freddy disappeared.
2. Ayoung woman cried.
3. The soldiers wait.
4. I slept.
5. The little girl smiled.Test yourself 30.21. He created a monster.
2. Frank broke the plate.
3. Sherry and I left the house.
4. The detective examined the old broken doorknob.
5. We resent those comments.Test yourself 30.31. He created a monster:2. Frank broke the plate:3. Sherry and I left the house:4. The detective examined the old broken doorknob:5. We resent those comments:Test yourself 30.41. The argument was silly.
2. The dress felt comfortable.
3. Steven became sick.
4. The point of this exercise seems obvious.
5. The children got excited.Test yourself 30.51. The argument was silly:2. The dress felt comfortable:3. Steven became sick:4. The point of this exercise seems obvious:5. The children got excited:Test yourself 30.61. Brady was a radio engineer.
2. The king sent a clear message.135
3. Those £owers look gorgeous.
4. Most able-bodied adults work.
5. I recognized them.

Test yourself 30.7
1. Brady was a radio engineer.	verb + noun phrase
2. The king sent a clear message.	verb + noun phrase
3. Those £owers look gorgeous.	verb +adjective
4. Most able-bodied adults work.	verb
5. I recognized them.	verb + noun phrase
Test yourself 30.8

1. The boat £oated in the water.
2. Janice is from Kansas City.
3. Mrs. Miller is at the beach.
4. He looked for me.
5. The sun appeared above the horizon.Test yourself 30.91. Elinor rented a car.
2. The clowns never laugh with the audience.
3. The road trip ended.
4. The band played my favorite song.
5. They left at noon.

Test yourself 30.10
1. Elinor rented a car.	verb + noun phrase
2. The clowns never laugh with the audience.	verb + prepositional phrase
3. The road trip ended.	verb
4. The band played my favorite song.	verb + noun phrase
5. They left at noon.	verb + prepositional phrase
Test yourself 30.11

1. Her mother looked under the bed.
2. Jan leaped for the shore.
3. The morning seemed peaceful.
4. The stock market fell hard.
5. She arrived with an empty suitcase.Test yourself 30.121. Vivian added calcium to her diet.
2. She knit that blanket from an unusual wool.
3. Her housekeeper rinsed those clothes in warm water.
4. I like my co¡ee without sugar.
5. Jack and Martha bought a wedding gift at Macy’s.U N I T 1 1 : V E R B P H R A S E S136
Test yourself 30.131. Your sister is a talented pianist.
2. Their doctor operates at that hospital.
3. Robert threw himself into the battle.
4. The o¡er sounded unrealistic.
5. His mother went to the drugstore.Test yourself 30.141. Your sister is a talented pianist. verb + noun phrase
2. Their doctor operates at that hospital. verb + prepositional phrase
3. Robert threw himself into the battle. verb + noun phrase + prepositional phrase
4. The o¡er sounded unrealistic. verb + adjective
5. His mother went to the drugstore. verb + prepositional phrase☞ FOR A REVIEW EXERCISE OF THIS UNIT, SEE THE WEBSITE.Answer keys: Unit 11137
UNIT 12: AUXILIARY PHRASESSo far, each verb we’ve talked about occurs in a verb phrase. This type of verb is called
a main verb. Other verbs, called helping verbs or auxiliary verbs, are found in auxiliary phrases. Auxiliary phrases are among the most satisfying to describe. That’s
because the English auxiliary phrase has a regular pattern, which helps to make it
easy to understand. So here’s some help with helping verbs.138
Lesson 31: The basic structure of auxiliary phrasesWhat are some sentences with helping (auxiliary) verbs? Here are a few examples, with
the helping verb underlined:
1. She should study.
2. She has studied.
3. She is studying.
In these sentences, the main verb is a form of study, and the helping verb is helping to give
us additional information that we can’t get from just the main verb. (See Unit 2 to remind
yourself about main verbs.)
There aren’t that many helping verbs; the basic ones are listed in Quick tip 31.1.Quick tip 31.1The basic helping verbs of English are:
a. can may shall will must
could might should would
b. have has had
c. am are is
was were
be been beingNow take another look at sentences 1^3, which have both a helping verb and a main
verb. Which comes ¢rst? You can see that the main verb always comes after the helping verb.Quick tip 31.2If a sentence has both a main verb and a helping verb, the main verb is always last.Does every sentence of English have a helping verb? Here are examples of sentences
that do not have a helping verb. Each only has a main verb, which is underlined.
4. She studies every day.
5. She studied every day.
6. He leaves at 9 in the morning.
7. He left at 9 in the morning.Test yourself 31.1Decide whether or not each sentence has a helping verb. Look for the main verb, which is
underlined, and see if there’s a helping verb before it.

Helping verb: NO	Helping verb:YES
Sample: He talked about himself.	...................	139

Getting started (answers on p. 164) 1. They were arguing loudly.	...................	...................
2. The frog had jumped ¢ve feet.	...................	...................
3. You invited everyone.	...................	...................
4. I must buy some milk.	...................	...................
5. Harry lives in Europe.	...................	...................
More practice (answers on the website) 6. Jogging should increase your stamina.	...................	...................
7. I have worked all day.	...................	...................
8. Sam will go ¢shing tomorrow.	...................	...................
9. Judy left for Dallas at noon.	...................	...................
10. Joey was chasing a rascal all day long.	...................	...................
Test yourself 31.2

Decide whether or not each sentence has a helping verb. This time the main verbs are not
underlined.Helping verb: NO Helping verb:YESSample: Maggie was walking nearby....................

Getting started (answers on p. 164) 1. You might write her a letter.	...................	...................
2. Congress voted on the bill.	...................	...................
3. Beth has survived that ordeal.	...................	...................
4. I could be an actor.	...................	...................
5. The Giants won the Super Bowl.	...................	...................
More practice (answers on the website) 6. You should do that.	...................	...................
7. She could move nearby.	...................	...................
8. My friend wants a two-car garage.	...................	...................
9. Jan must get that report done.	...................	...................
10. The sun rose at 5 A.M. today.	...................	...................

The helping verbs belong to di¡erent subgroups, as indicated in Quick tip 31.1. We’ll take
a closer look at each of the three types of helping verbs in the next few lessons.140U N I T 1 2 : A U X I L I A R Y P H R A S E S
Lesson 32: ModalsOne kind of helping verb is called a modal. A modal adds information, such as possibility,
necessity, or requests, to the verb that follows. The modals are underlined in the sentences below:
1. Ellen can do the job.
2. I will worry about that later.
3. You should rest before the party.
4. Dennis might change that carpeting.
There are nine basic modals, listed below. (They were group (a) of Quick tip 31.1.)Quick tip 32.1One kind of helping verb is called a modal. The basic modals of English are:
can could
may might
shall should
will would
mustTest yourself 32.1Underline the modal in each of the sentences below.
Sample:William should tell you the story.Getting started (answers on p. 164)
1. They must delay the invasion.
2. You will ¢nd courage in your heart.
3. Mr. Knight might go with you.
4. You should be proud of yourself.
5. Tomorrow we may go to the movies.More practice (answers on the website)
6. I could dance up a storm.
7. Lauren can name that tune in 10 seconds.
8. Ashley would win that race.
9. He shall travel to the countryside this weekend.
10. Jerry must renew his passport this month.Test yourself 32.2Underline the modal and put a squiggly line under the main verb in each of the sentences below.
Sample: She will be happy.Getting started (answers on p. 164)
1. The curtains might hide the view.
2. Paul could work on the problem.
3. She can leave this afternoon.
4. You must go to the emergency room
immediately.
5. The children will enjoy these gifts.141
More practice (answers on the website)
6. We should proceed with caution.
7. You may be right.
8. One would think so.
9. Mrs. Randall will give you an answer
tomorrow.
10. His father can postponehis retirement until
next year.To enhance your understandingHere are the modals again:
can could
may might
shall should
will would
must
Historically, those modals on the left have been considered present tense forms while
those on the right have been considered past tense forms. (For more on tenses, seeLesson 37.) Note that three of the past tense forms end in the consonant d; think of it as
a reminder of the past tense suffix -ed, as in the verb stayed.To further enhance your understandingSome expressions are similar to modals but consist of more than one word. They are calledphrasal modals or periphrastic modals. Here are some examples, underlined in the
following sentences:
5. I am able to go.
6. I ought to go.
7. I am going to go.
8. I would like to go.
9. I have to go.
10. I need to go.
Notice that many of the phrasal modals have the same meaning as one of the one-word
modals; for example:, am able to = can, ought to = should, am going to = will.
11. I am able to go = I can go.
12. I ought to go = I should go.
13. I am going to go = I will go.
Note also that phrasal verbs end in to, which is followed by the base form of the verb.142U N I T 1 2 : A U X I L I A R Y P H R A S E S
Lesson 33: Perfect haveIn each of the sentences below, thehelping verbis a form ofhave ^ eitherhave, has, orhad ^
and is underlined. (These were listed in group (b) of Quick tip 31.1.)
1. She had greeted me happily.
2. They have eaten dinner early today.
3. He has written many articles about the wealthy.
Sentences with the helping verb have are said to be expressed in the perfect aspect,
which adds information to the main verb about real-world time. For example, in sentence
2, usinghave indicates that the action began in the past and is complete.Quick tip 33.1One kind of helping verb is the verb have. It has three forms: have, has, and had.Test yourself 33.1Underline the have helping verbin each of the sentences below. It may be in any of the three forms ofhave. In these sentences, it will always be directly before the main verb.
Sample: I have imagined this for years.Getting started (answers on p. 164)
1. The bridge had collapsed.
2. That cheerful woman has saved the day.
3. My uncles have visited us every summer.
4. Her neighbor has been an attorney for
twenty years.
5. Suzie had traveled to Belgium twice
before.More practice (answers on the website)
6. My friend Sal has bought two suits recently.
7. Your remarks have entertained me
enormously.
8. Our teacher had sent us an e-mail yesterday.
9. That thought never has crossed my mind.
10. You and I have played chess numerous
times.Test yourself 33.2Underline the have helping verb and put a squiggly line under the main verb in each of the
sentences below.
Sample: He had annoyed his boss.Getting started (answers on p. 165)
1. Joan and Sam have worked for hours.
2. Their mother has spoken of you often.
3. The prime minister had written to him.
4. Your daughter has grown a lot taller.
5. She has seen her friends twice since last
Sunday.143
More practice (answers on the website)
6. Our dogshavemade amess of theliving room.
7. You had warned me not to heed his advice.
8. The chef has prepared this dish perfectly.
9. We have thought about your suggestion
seriously.
10. The actors had rehearsed for about an hour.
The verbhave is not usedonlyas a helping verbin English. Itcan also be themainverbin
a sentence. Here are some examples with have used as the main verb. Notice that whenhave is being used as the main verb, it refers to the notion of possession or ownership.
4. I have a comfortable bed.
5. She has a beautiful home.
6. That family had a lot of problems.Quick tip 33.2Have can be used as a helping verb or as a main verb. When have is used as the main verb,
it refers to the idea of possession. When have is used as the helping verb, it is always
followed by another verb.Test yourself 33.3Decide if the forms of have in the following sentences are being used as helping verbs or as main
verbs.Helping verb Main verbSample: Jack had a good time....................

Getting started (answers on p. 165) 1. Jack has experienced a good time.	...................	...................
2. He has seen her often.	...................	...................
3. You have a lot of DVDs.	...................	...................
4. She had tacos for dinner.	...................	...................
5. Your professor has the answer to your question.	...................	...................
More practice (answers on the website) 6. Grandpa has slept on the couch often.	...................	...................
7. Aisha had trouble with her car this morning.	...................	...................
8. My aunt has a treadmill in her basement.	...................	...................
9. Mrs. Stein had called the paramedics.	...................	...................
10. They have donated that coat to charity.	...................	...................

144U N I T 1 2 : A U X I L I A R Y P H R A S E S
You may have noticed that sometimes there are sentences with two occurrences ofhave.
Here are some examples.
7. Jack has had a bad time.
8. The mayor had had a close election.
9. We have had a delicious dinner.
How can we account for this? The ¢rst occurrence of have is a helping verb; the second
occurrence of have is the main verb (and refers to possession). That is, just as any other
main verb can use have as a helping verb, the main verb have can also use have as a helping
verb.That results in two forms of have in the same sentence.145Lesson 33: Perfect have
Lesson 34: Progressive beIn each of the sentences below, the helping verb is a form of the verb be and is underlined.
1. She is leaving on the train.
2. I was thinking about his behavior.
3. They were managing the restaurant.
(These were listed in group (c) of Quick tip 31.1.) In addition to the forms is, was, and were,
additional forms of be are am, are, be, been, and being.
Sentences with the helping verb be are said to be expressed in the progressive or continuous aspect, which usually indicates that the action takes place over a period of time.Quick tip 34.1One kind of helping verb is be. It has the following forms: am, is, are, was, were, be, been,
and being.Test yourself 34.1Underline the form of the be helping verb in each of the sentences below.
Sample: He was exercising regularly.Getting started (answers on p. 165)
1. The reporter was writing her story.
2. He is controlling his temper.
3. You are learning about syntax.
4. They were watching a movie last Sunday.
5. I am doing a lot of things right now.More practice (answers on the website)
6. The politicians are campaigning in full force.
7. The football teams were ¢nishing the season.
8. Catherine is learning to speak French.
9. Those actors were rehearsing.
10. I was cleaning my closet yesterday.Test yourself 34.2Underline the be helping verb and put a squiggly line under the main verb in each of the sentences
below.
Sample: He is greeting his boss.Getting started (answers on p. 165)
1. I was talking to Harry.
2. Irving and Annie are studying Latin.
3. He is testing her loyalty.
4. I am taking a walk.
5. You were reading for hours.More practice (answers on the website)
6. The train is arriving.
7. The wrestlers are getting ready to compete.
8. The manager was closing the store.
9. I am organizing a luncheon for him.
10. The children were playing peacefully.146
The verb be is not used only as a helping verb in English. It can also be the main verb in a
sentence, inwhich caseit’s a linking verb. (This was discussed in Lesson 9.) As a reminder,
here are some sentences with be used as the main verb:
4. I am happy
5. She was an actress.
6. Those Broadway shows are great.Quick tip 34.2Be and its forms can be used as a helping verb or as a main verb. When be is used as the
helping verb, it is always followed by another verb.Test yourself 34.3Decide if the forms of be in the following sentences are being used as helping verbs or as main
verbs.Helping verb Main verbSample: Joan is a genius....................

Getting started (answers on p. 165) 1. Sam is looking at the mail.	...................	...................
2. That concept was di⁄cult.	...................	...................
3. You are helping her a lot.	...................	...................
4. I am a doctor.	...................	...................
5. They were watching TV.	...................	...................
More practice (answers on the website) 6. She was writing her term paper.	...................	...................
7. David is a famous opera singer.	...................	...................
8. You are joking, right?	...................	...................
9. His employees are happy about it.	...................	...................
10. Jackie and Richard were friends.	...................	...................

You may have noticed that sometimes there are sentences with two occurrences of be.
Here are some examples:
7. Andrew is being a nuisance.
8. My friends were being courageous.
9. They are being clowns.
How can we account for this? The ¢rst occurrence of be is a helping verb; the second
occurrence of be is the main verb.That is, just as any other main verb can use be as a helping verb, the main verb be can also use be as a helping verb.That results in two forms of bein the same sentence.147Lesson 34: Progressive be
Lesson 35: Combining auxiliary verbsAll the sentences with helping (auxiliary) verbs that we’ve looked at so far have had only
one helping verb. It’s possible, however, for a sentence to have more than one helping
verb. Here are some examples of sentences with two helping verbs; the helping verbs are
underlined. (Remember that there are three kinds of helping verbs: (a) modals (e.g.should, can, might), (b) have, and (c) be. See Lessons 32^34.)
1. She should have studied. (modal + have)
2. She may be studying. (modal + be)
3. She has been studying. (have + be)
When a sentence has two helping verbs, which helping verb is ¢rst? If a sentence has
a modal, that will always be the ¢rst helping verb, as you can see in sentences 1 and 2. If
a sentence has both have and be as helping verbs, have will always be ¢rst, as you can see
in sentence 3.
Can you think of a sentence with three helping verbs? Sentences 4 and 5 have three helping verbs (underlined):
4. She should have been studying.
5. Mary might have been looking at him.
If there are three helping verbs, they are always in the following order: modal + have +
be, as you can see from sentences 4 and 5. And if there are only two helping verbs, they’re
still in this relative order, with modal ¢rst, and have before be.Quick tip 35.1A sentence can have zero, one, or more than one helping verb. If there is more than
one, they will always be in the following relative order: modal +have +be.Test yourself 35.1For each sentence below, underline the main verb.Then decide if the sentence has zero, one, two, or
three helping verbs before the main verb.

Sample: They may rent a car at the terminal.	1
Getting started (answers on p. 165) 1. She was focusing on the mirror.	...................
2. Andy should have been enjoying his new career.	...................
3. Mrs. Packard’s life changed at that point.	...................
4. You can have two scoops of ice cream.	...................
5. I might have committed a serious error.	...................

148

More practice (answers on the website) 6. Tamara has been working for 22 years.	...................
7. He could have been telling the truth.	...................
8. The birds were chirping early in the morning.	...................
9. Gauguin painted inTahiti.	...................
10. Tomorrow we will go to the movies.	...................
Test yourself 35.2

Underline each helping verb in the sentences below. Each sentence will have at least one helping
verb.
Sample:The children have been working hard.Getting started (answers on p. 165)
1. You should read this book.
2. She had been greeting me happily.
3. Janice might have gotten the £u.
4. My question was bothering him.
5. The prime suspect might have been telling
the truth.More practice (answers on the website)
6. He could have been a hero.
7. The journalists will be traveling throughout
Canada.
8. I have written many articles about the
wealthy.
9. This has been a di⁄cult time for me.
10. The trial has been going on far too long.Test yourself 35.3Underline each helping verb in the sentences below. A sentence will have anywhere from zero to
three helping verbs.
Sample: He and Bill shook hands. (No helping verb.)Getting started (answers on p. 166)
1. I had been writing to him often.
2. Their mother has spoken of you a lot.
3. Sam will recognize it immediately.
4. We were good friends.
5. You should be studying right now.More practice (answers on the website)
6. He may have been working on the project.
7. We had a sudden downpour.
8. This storm will pass soon.
9. The attorney may have overstated her case.
10. This relationship is improving rapidly.Test yourself 35.4Underline each helping verb in the sentences below and put a squiggly line under the main verb. A
sentence will have anywhere from zero to three helping verbs.
Sample: Paul was offering me a drink.149Lesson 35: Combining auxiliary verbs
Getting started (answers on p. 166)
1. They can do the research.
2. Suzanne might be leaving sooner.
3. Papa has been teasing him.
4. I might have been being too cautious.
5. The plane was late.More practice (answers on the website)
6. The student will have completed his
assignment by tomorrow.
7. You are being silly.
8. Everyone has had a great time at the party.
9. The show was a great success.
10. It must have been di⁄cult to do that.150U N I T 1 2 : A U X I L I A R Y P H R A S E S
Lesson 36: The suffixes of auxiliary verbsEach helping verb is actually a two-part package.There’s the helping verb itself, and then
there’s the e¡ect that the helping verb has on the verb that follows it.
Look at the sentences below. In each of them, the helping verb is a form of progressive be(underlined).What e¡ect does progressive be have on the verb that follows it?
1. The children were working hard.
2. I am considering a new job o¡er.
3. Nothing was limiting his development.
4. Many new advances are emerging.
5. Sam is watching his favoriteTVshow.
You can see that the verb after the form of be always has -ing added to its base. This -ingform of the verb is referred to as the present participle in traditional grammar.Quick tip 36.1When the helping verb is progressive be, the next verb always has -ing added to its base
form. Example: is sleeping. The -ing verb form is called the present participle.Test yourself 36.1Each of the following sentences has a form of the helping verb be. Underline the be verb and the -ingending of the following verb.
Sample: Maggie is sleeping now.Getting started (answers on p. 166)
1. She is leaving on the ten o’clock train.
2. The curtains were masking the view.
3. I was wondering about his behavior.
4. Paul is leaning on his wife’s chair.
5. They are sounding rather defensive.More practice (answers on the website)
6. We were attending a graduation ceremony
last week.
7. Jim’s parents were watching a movie.
8. You are trying too hard.
9. I am dreaming of a gentle snowfall.
10. The President was addressing the nation
yesterday.
In each of the following sentences, the helping verb is a form of have (underlined).What
e¡ect does have have on the verb that follows it? (This is a little trickier than the pattern
with be.)
6. She had greeted me happily.
7. They have eaten dinner early today.
8. That had interested the reporter.
9. Sarah had managed to pry apart the shells.151
10. Carla and Raphael have written many books together.
11. He and Bill had shaken hands.
The verb following have most frequently has the su⁄x -en or -ed added to it.The form of
the verb following the helping verb have is traditionally called the past participle.Quick tip 36.2When have is the helping verb, the next verb typically has -ed or -en added to its base form.
Examples: has eaten, have watched. The verb form following the helping verb have is
called the past participle.Test yourself 36.2Each of the following sentences has a form of the helping verb have. Underline the have and the -edor -en ending of the following verb.
Sample:You had managed the situation very well.Getting started (answers on p. 166)
1. The women had spoken to each other recently.
2. Unfortunately, the heroine had married the
villain.
3. Andy and George have enjoyed themselves
enormously.
4. My student has written an interesting essay
on technology.
5. The hockey game has ended in a tie.More practice (answers on the website)
6. The local theater has provided much
entertainment over the years.
7. I have seen you somewhere before.
8. Her brother has broken the vase to pieces.
9. They have lied too many times.
10. Mona’s boyfriend has surprised her with a
wedding proposal.
The -ed and -en su⁄xes are the most common endings for past participles. However, for
historical reasons, there are actually several ways to form past participles. Note the following patterns of some typical verbs:

Verb base	Perfect	Past participle
be	have been	been
see	have seen	seen
give	have given	given
arrange	have arranged	arranged
walk	have walked	walked
play	have played	played

Another way to form past participles is by changing a vowel of the verb base, sometimes
also adding the su⁄x -en. Some examples are:

Verb base	Perfect	Past participle
begin	have begun	begun
sing	have sung	sung
speak	have spoken	spoken
weave	have woven	woven

152U N I T 1 2 : A U X I L I A R Y P H R A S E S
Sometimes no change at all is made to the verb:

Verb base	Perfect	Past participle
hit	have hit	hit
come	have come	come

There is no magic or hard and fast rule to determine what the past participle of a particular verb is.We simply have to memorize it when we learn English.
In each of the following sentences, the helping verb is a modal (underlined).What e¡ect
does a modal have on the verb that follows it?
12. The piano salesman should consider his actions.
13. He will recognize it immediately.
14. Sam could be a star quarterback.
15. The major may speak to you later.Quick tip 36.3When the helping verb is a modal, the next verb is always in its base form. Example: can
study.Test yourself 36.3Each of the following sentences has a modal helping verb. Underline the modal and put a squiggly
line under the verb following it, which will be in its base form.
Sample: He should oppose their actions.Getting started (answers on p. 166)
1. Richard will believe the truth.
2. The waiter might bring it.
3. They may be home late.
4. We shall overcome this obstacle.
5. I would do it in an instant.More practice (answers on the website)
6. The mail should arrive by noon.
7. Michael can build anything.
8. The waiters must wash their hands often.
9. On a clear day, you could see for miles.
10. The train will make a stop in Atlanta.
What happens to the following verb if there is more than one helping verb in a sentence?
Is the pattern the same when a helping verb is followed by another helping verb, rather
than the main verb? The patterns we have talked about are the same, whether there is one
helping verb or more than one helping verb in a sentence.You can see this in the following
sentences:
16. They have been seeing the doctor regularly.
17. You have been observing the situation closely.
Since have (in bold) is a helping verb in these sentences, the next verb, be, gets the -en ending (also in bold). And since be (underlined) is also a helping verb, the verb after be gets
the -ing ending (also underlined).153Lesson 36: The suffixes of auxiliary verbs
We can also see consistent patterns in the following two sentences:
18. They should have seen the doctor regularly.
19. You might be observing the situation closely.
In sentence 18 the modal (in bold) causes the next verb, have, to be in its base form. Thehave helping verb then a¡ects the form of the next verb, the main verb see, which appears
in its past participle form, seen. Similarly, in sentence 19 the modal, might, causes the
next verb, be, to be in its base form.Then the be a¡ects the form of the next verb, the main
verb observe, which appears in its present participle form, observing.
What happens if a sentence has all three kinds of helping verbs? The pattern still
remains the same, as you can see in the next set of examples:
20. They should have be en seeing the doctor regularly.
21. You might have been observing the situation more closely.
The modal, which is the ¢rst helping verb (in bold), causes have to be in its base form.Thehave helping verb (underlined) causes the next verb, be, to appear in its past participle
form, that is, with the -en su⁄x (also underlined), and be (with a squiggly line) causes the
next verb, the main verb, to be in its present participle form, that is, ending in -ing (also
with a squiggly line).
So the overall pattern is completely consistent, whether a sentence has one, two, or
three helping verbs.
As we’ve seen, when progressive be is the helping verb, the next verb always has -ingadded to it. But sometimes verbs ending in the -ing su⁄x have a di¡erent use, as we can
see in these next sentences:
22. Skiing energizes me.
23. I love cooking.
In these sentences, the -ing word does not follow the helping verb be. Instead,
the -ing ending changes the verb into a noun. In fact, notice that the -ing word
can be replaced with a typical noun in these sentences, for example: Sugar energizes me, I love Mary. A noun that consists of a verb and the su⁄x -ing is called agerund.Quick tip 36.4A noun that consists of a verb and the suffix -ing is called a gerund. Example: Entertain-ing
is fun.Here are some more examples of sentences with gerunds:
24. Reading is one of life’s pleasures.
25. Thinking can be hard work!
26. The criminal admitted lying.
27. They stopped worrying about it.Test yourself 36.4Decide if each underlined word ending in -ing in the following sentences is being used as a verb,
part of the progressive be ‘‘package,’’ or as a noun, that is, as a gerund. To help you decide, see
whether or not the -ing word follows the helping verb be.154U N I T 1 2 : A U X I L I A R Y P H R A S E S
Verb (progressive) Noun (gerund)

Sample: She likes walking the dog.	...................
Getting started (answers on p. 166)
1. They are constructing small homes in that part of town....................

...................2. He was looking forJonas.................... ...................3. The candidate thought about refusing.................... ...................4. Giving to charity is an old American tradition.................... ...................5. I should have thought of responding earlier.................... ...................More practice (answers on the website)
6. Last night we were having lots of fun.................... ...................7. The employee was being honest with you.................... ...................8. She enjoys listening to her iPod.................... ...................9. Some doctors recommend taking vitamin pills.................... ...................10. I am considering your o¡er seriously.................... ...................Here is a summaryof the threehelping verbs we’ve discussed in this lesson and the form of
the verb that follows each:

Helping verb	Following verb
modal	base form
perfect have	past participle form (typically ending in -ed or -en)
progressive be:	present participle form (always ending in -ing)

Two additional helping verbs will be discussed in Lessons 52 and 53.155Lesson 36: The suffixes of auxiliary verbs
Lesson 37: TenseThe verb of a sentence gives information about tense. Speakers of English generally are
aware that, for example, the verb studies is a present tense form while the verb studied is a
past tense form.Test yourself 37.1For each verb below, decide if it is in its present tense or past tense form.Present tense Past tenseSample: was...................Getting started (answers on p. 167)
1. sends................... ...................2. felt................... ...................3. perceived................... ...................4. am................... ...................5. has................... ...................More practice (answers on the website)
6. wrote................... ...................7. sat................... ...................8. walk................... ...................9. arose................... ...................10. sing................... ...................It’s important to understand that grammatical tense and real world time are not necessarily the same.Take a look at the following sentences:
1. She studied yesterday.
2. She was studying yesterday.
In sentences 1and 2, the tense of the underlined verbs, as seen in their forms, is past; the
time that is being talked about is also past. So in these cases tense and time are the same.
Now consider the following sentences:
3. I am going to France next summer.
4. She has bought the books for the course.
In sentences 3 and 4, the grammatical tense of the underlined verbs is present. (If these
verbs were past tense forms, they would be was and had, respectively). However, the reallife or actual time that sentence 3 is talking about is in the future; the actual time that sentence 4 is talking about is in the past. So in sentences 3 and 4 we can see that grammatical
tense and real-life time are not always the same.
For the rest of this lesson, we’ll be focusing on the tense (grammatical form) and not the
real-life time of English verbs.Quick tip 37.1Time refers to a point in real life at which something occurs. Tense refers to the grammatical
form of a verb.156
In a simple sentence, tense information is carried by only one verb. If a sentence has
helping verbs as well as a main verb, which verb shows tense? In each of the sentences
below, the verb that carries the tense information is underlined.
5. John studies.
6. John studied.
7. John has studied.
8. John had studied.
9. John is studying.
10. John was studying.
11. John has been studying.
12. John had been studying.
You can see that in each sentence it is the very ¢rst verb that carries the tense information, regardless of whether it’s a helping verb or the main verb.
You will notice that we have not included in our list of sentences in 5 through 12 examples of sentences whose ¢rst verb is a modal. (Recall from Lesson 34 that modals always
come ¢rst in sentences with more than one verb.) That is because in general, modals do
not carry clear tense information. Look at the following examples:
13. I might do it right now / today.
14. I might do it tomorrow.
15. I might have done it yesterday.
As you can see, the form of the modal is the same (might), regardless of whether it refers to
time in the present (sentence 13), time in the future (sentence 14), or time in the past (sentence 15). We will consider modals to be tenseless.Quick tip 37.2Tense information is always indicated by the first verb in the sentence, excluding modals.Traditionally, sentences have been grouped into di¡erent types, according to the tense
of the verb. Let’s compare the following two sentences:
16. John studies every day.
17. John studied every day.
You can see that the only di¡erence between sentence 16 and sentence 17 is that in 16,study is in its present tense form and in 17 study is in its past tense form. On this basis,
sentence 16 has present tense (or simple present tense), while sentence 17 has past
tense (or simple past tense).
Here are some more examples, with the verbs underlined:
18. Ira sighed in relief. ( past)
19. Alice sees her often. ( present)
20. He laughed hysterically. ( past)
21. I often forget the answer. ( present)Quick tip 37.3Sentences with no helping verb are in either the present or past tense, depending on the
form of the verb.Almost all verbs, like the verbs in sentences 18 and 20, form their past tense by adding the
su⁄x -ed. These verbs are called regular verbs. Some verbs, however, do not follow this157Lesson 37: Tense
pattern. These verbs are called irregular verbs. Some examples of irregular verbs are:see (past tense saw), write (past tense wrote), and hit (past tense hit).Test yourself 37.2Decide if each sentenceisin the present or past tense.You’ll need to ¢nd the verb tomake this decision.
Sample: Her daughter giggled happily. past...........

Getting started (answers on p. 167) 1. They deliver furniture onTuesdays.	.........................................................................................
2. The senator supports that bill.	.........................................................................................
3. I voted for him.	.........................................................................................
4. I ate a sandwich for lunch.	..........................................................................................
5. The shortstop hit a home run.	..........................................................................................
More practice (answers on the website) 6. Michigan State beat Ohio State.	..........................................................................................
7. Our niece studies anthropology.	..........................................................................................
8. The weather is humid today.	..........................................................................................
9. The repairman arrived at noon.	..........................................................................................
10. My daughter came for a visit.	..........................................................................................

The next two sentences have future tense (or simple future tense): they have the
modal helping verb will, followed by the base of the main verb.
22. John will study tomorrow.
23. Jessica will visit her soon.Quick tip 37.4Sentences with will followed by the main verb are in the future tense.The future tense can also be expressed with the modal helping verb shall: e.g. John shall
study tomorrow. Shall has restricted usage in American English: generally, it’s used only
in formal speech styles. Consequently, we’ll ignore shall in our discussion here.

Test yourself 37.3
Decide if each sentence below is in the present, past, or future tense. Sample: Those Halloween decorations will look scary.	future.................
Getting started (answers on p. 167) 1. He sleeps late on weekends.	.............................................................................
2. Zach was proud of his son.	.............................................................................
3. Bethany will get married soon.	.............................................................................
158

U N I T 1 2 : A U X I L I A R Y P H R A S E S
4. The show began promptly at 8 P.M..............................................................................5. My sister will run in the NewYork City marathon..............................................................................More practice (answers on the website)
6. The co¡ee tasted bitter..............................................................................7. I study in England every summer..............................................................................8. My younger brother beat me at chess..............................................................................9. Stu gets up at 7 A.M. every morning.................................................................................10. We will hold a family reunion in July..............................................................................As we saw above (in sentences 4, 11, and 12), sentences with the have helping verb also
change in form to indicate tense:
24. I have bought the books.
25. I had bought the books.
The di¡erence between the two sentences is that sentence 24 is in the present
tense, while sentence 25 is in the past tense. Notice that it is only the form of havethat changes to indicate the tense information. The verb after have is always in its
past participle form, which does not change to indicate tense. Although sentences
with the have helping verb are in the perfect aspect, when we talk about a sentence
with both tense and aspect, we just use the term ‘‘tense.’’ So therefore sentence 24
is in the present perfect tense while sentence 25 is in the past perfect tense.Quick tip 37.5If a sentence has a form of have as a helping verb, it will have the word perfect as part of
the name of its tense.Quick tip 37.6The present tense forms of have are have and has. The past tense form of have is had.Test yourself 37.4Decide if each sentence is in the present perfect or past perfect tense. Use the form of have to help
you make your decision.

Sample: I had believed every word of that broadcast.	past perfect..............................
Getting started (answers on p. 167) 1. She had wanted to do everything her way.	..........................................................................................................
2. Martha has known about the surprise.	..........................................................................................................
3. Samantha had decided to do that.	..........................................................................................................
4. I have written to him about that issue.	..........................................................................................................

5. You have been a good friend...........................................................................................................159Lesson 37: Tense
More practice (answers on the website)
6. They have purchased a new home.....................................................................................................7. On our trip, we had converted $200 to euros.....................................................................................................8. Andy has promised to tell the truth...........................................................................................................9. The detective had found an important witness.....................................................................................................10. The Democrats have won the presidency.....................................................................................................What do you think is the tense of the following sentences?
26. John will have studied by then.
27. It will have been an easy test.
Since these sentences have both will and a form of have as helping verbs, they are in thefuture perfect tense.Quick tip 37.7If a sentence has will as a helping verb, it will have the word future as part of the name of its
tense.Test yourself 37.5Decide if each sentence below is in the present perfect, past perfect, or future perfect tense. Look at
the form of have and for the presence or absence of will to help you.
Sample: Our friends have dropped by. present perfect......................................

Getting started (answers on p. 167) 1. They have ¢nished the assignment.	.................................................................................................
2. The alarm clock will have gone o¡ by then.	.................................................................................................
3. Linda had locked the door.	.................................................................................................
4. My friend John has been a great help to me.	.................................................................................................
5. By then, I will have ¢nished studying.	.................................................................................................
More practice (answers on the website) 6. Frank had appeared in a movie once.	.................................................................................................
7. You have encouraged me many times.	.................................................................................................
8. She has written a letter to her sister.	.................................................................................................
9. There had been a £ood of inquiries.	.....................................................................................................
10. You will haveleft a great legacy to your children.	........................................................................................................

160U N I T 1 2 : A U X I L I A R Y P H R A S E S
Last, we come to sentences with a form ofbe as a helping verb.These also change in form
to indicate tense:
28. I am buying the book.
29. I was buying the book.
The di¡erence between the two sentencesis that sentence 28isin the present tense, while
sentence 29 is in the past tense. Notice that the verb afterbe is in its present participle form
(that is, its -ing form), which does not change to indicate tense. Remember that although
sentences with the be helping verb are in the progressive aspect, when we talk about a sentence with both tense and aspect, we just use the term‘‘tense.’’ So therefore sentence 28 is in
the present progressive tense while sentence 29 is in the past progressive tense.
As you might expect, the following sentences are in the future progressive tense:
30. I will be leaving at three o’clock.
31. Harry will be running the marathon.
You can see that they have both will and be as helping verbs.Quick tip 37.8If a sentence has a form of be as a helping verb, it will have the word progressive as part of
the name of its tense.Quick tip 37.9The present tense forms of be are am, is, and are. The past tense forms of be are was andwere.Test yourself 37.6Decide if each sentence below is in the present progressive, past progressive, or future progressive
tense. Look at the form of be and for the presence or absence of will to help you.
Sample: He was racing down the steps of the library. past progressive..........................................

Getting started (answers on p. 167) 1. She is packing her bags.	..............................................................................................
2. Tom will be thinking about it all day.	..............................................................................................
3. The computer was working on it.	..............................................................................................
4. It will be snowing tomorrow.	..............................................................................................
5. I am getting tired.	..............................................................................................
More practice (answers on the website) 6. They were buying stamps at the post o⁄ce.	..............................................................................................
7. Jackie will be starting a new business.	..............................................................................................
8. You surely are kidding.	..............................................................................................
9. The mechanic was washing his car.	..................................................................................................
10. We will be celebrating for hours.	..............................................................................................

161Lesson 37: Tense
Since sentences can have more than one helping verb (see Lesson 35), their tenses can
have combinations of the words present, past, future, perfect, and progressive in their
names. Here are examples of each of the possible tenses:
32. Mary speaks to everyone. (present)
33. Mary spoke to everyone. (past)
34. Mary will speak to everyone. (future)
35. Mary has spoken to everyone. (present perfect)
36. Mary had spoken to everyone. (past perfect)
37. Mary will have spoken to everyone. (future perfect)
38. Mary is speaking to everyone. (present progressive)
39. Mary was speaking to everyone. (past progressive)
40. Mary will be speaking to everyone. (future progressive)
41. Mary has been speaking to everyone. (present perfect progressive)
42. Mary had been speaking to everyone. (past perfect progressive)
43. Mary will have been speaking to everyone. (future perfect progressive)
To sum up:
(a) A sentence with will always has the word future in its tense name.
(b) A sentence with a have helping verb always has the word perfect in its tense name.
(c) A sentence with a be helping verb followed by a verb in its -ing form always has the
word progressive in its tense name.
(d) For sentences without will, look at the form of the ¢rst helping verb, if there is one, or
of the main verb, if there’s no helping verb, to decide if the tense is present or past.Test yourself 37.7Identify the tense name of each of the verb combinations below.
Sample: had thought past perfectGetting started (answers on p. 168)
1. will consider............................................................2. experienced.............................................................3. will have wanted..................................................4. had been watching..............................................5. will be reading.......................................................More practice (answers on the website)
6. were acting..........................................................................7. will have been studying............................................8. has had....................................................................................9. have been sleeping........................................................10. mention..................................................................................

Test yourself 37.8
Identify the tense name of each of the sentences below. Sample: He will be expecting great things of her.	future progressive...............................................
Getting started (answers on p. 168) 1. She was making some progress.	..........................................................................................................
2. Marie shrugged her shoulders.	..........................................................................................................
3. She will be taking a long walk.	..........................................................................................................
4. He has had two serious operations.	..........................................................................................................
5. They had been getting numerous phone calls.	..........................................................................................................

162U N I T 1 2 : A U X I L I A R Y P H R A S E S
More practice (answers on the website)
6. Neil is going toWashington tomorrow..........................................................................................................7. Clare has been watching ESPN for years...........................................................................................................8. You will be a champion one day...........................................................................................................9. Luis will have worked for IBM for 40 years...........................................................................................................10. I will have been sleeping for nine hours...........................................................................................................163Lesson 37: Tense
Answer keys: Test yourself, Getting startedquestions – Unit 12Test yourself 31.1Helping verb: NO Helping verb:YES1. They were arguing loudly....................2. The frog had jumped ¢ve feet....................3. You invited everyone....................4. I must buy some milk....................5. Harry lives in Europe....................

Test yourself 31.2
Helping verb: NO	Helping verb:YES
1. You might write her a letter.	...................
2. Congress voted on the bill.	...................

3. Beth has survived that ordeal....................4. I could be an actor....................5. The Giants won the Super Bowl....................Test yourself 32.11. They must delay the invasion.
2. You will ¢nd courage in your heart.
3. Mr. Knight might go with you.
4. You should be proud of yourself.
5. Tomorrow we may go to the movies.Test yourself 32.21. The curtains might hide the view.
2. Paul could work on the problem.
3. She can leave this afternoon.
4. You must go to the emergency room immediately.
5. The children will enjoy these gifts.Test yourself 33.11. The bridge had collapsed.
2. That cheerful woman has saved the day.
3. My uncles have visited us every summer.
4. Her neighbor has been an attorney for twenty years.
5. Suzie had traveled to Belgium twice before.164
Test yourself 33.21. Joan and Sam have worked for hours.
2. Their mother has spoken of you often.
3. The prime minister had written to him.
4. Your daughter has grown a lot taller.
5. She has seen her friends twice since last Sunday.

Test yourself 33.3
Helping verb	Main verb
1. Jack has experienced a good time.	...................
2. He has seen her often.	...................

3. You have a lot of DVDs....................4. She had tacos for dinner....................5. Your professor has the answer to your question....................Test yourself 34.11. The reporter was writing her story.
2. He is controlling his temper.
3. You are learning about syntax.
4. They were watching a movie last Sunday.
5. I am doing a lot of things right now.Test yourself 34.21. I was talking to Harry.
2. Irving and Annie are studying Latin.
3. He is testing her loyalty.
4. I am taking a walk.
5. You were reading for hours.

Test yourself 34.3
Helping verb	Main verb
1. Sam is looking at the mail.	...................
2. That concept was di⁄cult.	...................

3. You are helping her a lot....................4. I am a doctor....................5. They were watching TV....................

Test yourself 35.1

1. She was focusing on the mirror.

2. Andy should have been enjoying his new career.

3. Mrs. Packard’s life changed at that point.

4. You can have two scoops of ice cream.

5. I might have committed a serious error.

Test yourself 35.2

1. You should read this book.
2. She had been greeting me happily.165Answer keys: Unit 12
3. Janice might have gotten the £u.
4. My question was bothering him.
5. The prime suspect might have been telling the truth.Test yourself 35.31. I had been writing to him often.
2. Their mother has spoken of you a lot.
3. Sam will recognize it immediately.
4. We were good friends. (No helping verb.)
5. You should be studying right now.Test yourself 35.41. They can do the research.
2. Suzanne might be leaving sooner.
3. Papa has been teasing him.
4. I might have been being too cautious.
5. The plane was late.Test yourself 36.11. She is leaving on the ten o’clock train.
2. The curtains were masking the view.
3. I was wondering about his behavior.
4. Paul is leaning on his wife’s chair.
5. They are sounding rather defensive.Test yourself 36.21. The women had spoken to each other recently.
2. Unfortunately, the heroine had married the villain.
3. Andy and George have enjoyed themselves enormously.
4. My student has written an interesting essay on technology.
5. The hockey game has ended in a tie.Test yourself 36.31. Richard will believe the truth.
2. The waiter might bring it.
3. They may be home late.
4. We shall overcome this obstacle.
5. I would do it in an instant.Test yourself 36.4Verb (progressive) Noun (gerund)1. They are constructing small homes in that part of town....................2. He was looking forJonas....................3. The candidate thought about refusing....................4. Giving to charity is an old American tradition....................5. I should have thought of responding earlier....................166U N I T 1 2 : A U X I L I A R Y P H R A S E S

Test yourself 37.1
Present tense	Past tense
1. sends	...................
2. felt	...................

3. perceived ...................4. am...................5. has...................

Test yourself 37.2
1. They deliver furniture onTuesdays.	present
2. The senator supports that bill.	present
3. I voted for him.	past
4. I ate a sandwich for lunch.	past
5. The shortstop hit a home run.	past
Test yourself 37.3
1. He sleeps late on weekends.	present
2. Zach was proud of his son.	past
3. Bethany will get married soon.	future
4. The show began promptly at 8 P.M.	past
5. My sister will run in the NewYork City marathon.	future
Test yourself 37.4
1. She had wanted to do everything her way.	past perfect
2. Martha has known about the surprise.	present perfect
3. Samantha had decided to do that.	past perfect
4. I have written to him about that issue.	present perfect
5. You have been a good friend.	present perfect
Test yourself 37.5
1. They have ¢nished the assignment.	present perfect
2. The alarm clock will have gone o¡ by then.	future perfect
3. Linda had locked the door.	past perfect
4. My friend John has been a great help to me.	present perfect
5. By then, I will have ¢nished studying.	future perfect
Test yourself 37.6
1. She is packing her bags.	present progressive
2. Tom will be thinking about it all day.	future progressive
3. The computer was working on it.	past progressive
4. It will be snowing tomorrow.	future progressive
5. I am getting tired.	present progressive

167Answer keys: Unit 12

Test yourself 37.7
1. will consider	future
2. experienced	past
3. will have wanted	future perfect
4. had been watching	past perfect progressive
5. will be reading	future progressive
Test yourself 37.8
1. She was making some progress.	past progressive
2. Marie shrugged her shoulders.	past
3. She will be taking a long walk.	future progressive
4. He has had two serious operations.	present perfect
5. They had been getting numerous phone calls.	past perfect progressive

☞ FOR A REVIEW EXERCISE OF THIS UNIT, SEE THE WEBSITE.168U N I T 1 2 : A U X I L I A R Y P H R A S E S
UNIT 13: SUBJECTS AND OBJECTSSentences may contain several noun phrases.These noun phrases can have di¡erent jobs,
or functions, within the sentence.Take a look at the following sentence:
On Valentine’s Day, my brother bought a bouquet of £owers for his wife.
The underlined noun phrases are doing di¡erent things: my brother is doing the action, a
bouquet of £owers is receiving the action, and his wife is receiving the £owers. In the lessons of this unit, we discuss in detail these grammatical functions (or grammatical
relations).169
Lesson 38: SubjectsWe can identify the subject of a sentence with an action verb (see Lesson 9) by answering
the question: ‘‘Who is doing the action?’’ For example, in the sentence Confucius spoke
many words of wisdom, the action is speaking. Who is, or was, doing the speaking?Confucius. Confucius is therefore the subject of the sentence.The subjects are underlined
in the following examples:
1. John baked a cake.
2. You are going to grin and bear it.
3. Just then, the children walked in.
4. He delivered a small package.
5. Mr. Bucknose, the carpenter, sleeps in the spare room.
6. Wearily, the group trudged onward.
7. I usually take a nap in the afternoon.
Generally, the subject is at or near the beginning of the sentence. More speci¢cally, the
subject is the ¢rst noun phrase (see Lesson 28) in the sentence.Quick tip 38.1If the main verb of the sentence is an action verb, the subject of the sentence is the doer of
the action and generally comes before the verb. It can be found by answering the question:
‘‘Who or what is doing the action?’’Test yourself 38.1Underline the subject in each of the sentences below. In these sentences, it will always be the doer of
the action and will be the ¢rst noun phrase in the sentence.
Sample: Jeanette demanded an answer to her question.Getting started (answers on p. 189)
1. The servant accompanied His Lordship.
2. Jean participated in theTour de France.
3. Such families have often preferred to travel
in style.
4. They could do nothing except run.
5. Mr.Tower quietly explained all this to his son.More practice (answers on the website)
6. The diners are arguing loudly.
7. Your uncle invited me to accompany him on
his business trip.
8. TheYankeeswontheWorldSeriesmany times.
9. Macy’s is holding a huge sale next Sunday.
10. TheTVrepairman has just arrived.
The subject is underlined in the following sentences:
8. John is tall.
9. That church is impressive.170
10. Both brothers became architects.
11. Earlier, she had felt dizzy.
In these sentences, the subject is not performing an action ^ the verb is not an action verb.
Rather, the verb is a linking verb (see Lesson 9).When the verb in the sentence is a linking
verb, the subject can be found by asking the question:‘‘Who or what is this sentence about?’’
In these cases, the subject is found at or near the beginning of the sentence, before the verb.Quick tip 38.2If the main verb of the sentence is a linking verb, the subject is who or what the sentence is
about; the subject is found before the verb.Test yourself 38.2Underline the subject in each of the sentences below. In these sentences, it will always be who or
what the sentence is about and will be the ¢rst noun phrase in the sentence.
Sample: The professor was imprisoned for his beliefs.Getting started (answers on p. 189)
1. The Hotel Regina is an attractive
place.
2. It became the best-known symbol of
Paris.
3. The local merchants were on his side.
4. Charles looked thoughtful.
5. Christine seemed insecure.More practice (answers on the website)
6. She was determined to meet Dr. Richards
again.
7. His older sister resembled her father,
unfortunately.
8. Her folks are good people.
9. My son is destined for success as an attorney.
10. Their apology seems genuine.Test yourself 38.3Underline the subjectineachof the sentencesbelow. Inthese sentences,itwilleitherbe thedoerof the
action or who or what the sentenceis about.The subject will be the ¢rst noun phrase in the sentence.
Sample: These proportions are inaccurate.Getting started (answers on p. 189)
1. The editor looked for new ideas for the
magazine.
2. You can rely on the experts at that company.
3. Maggie usually goes berry picking in the
summer.
4. Roger is happy with his new computer.
5. The workers went on strike for a couple of
weeks.More practice (answers on the website)
6. Alana’s hair smells fresh.
7. I got there on time.
8. They postponed the ball game on account of
bad weather.
9. Bowling is a favorite pastime of mine.
10. Some students missed the ¢nal exam.
The subject is not always right at the beginning of the sentence:
12. In the afternoon, I usually take a nap.
13. In truth, Don Diego had never really had a career.Lesson 38: Subjects171
14. That day, his timing was perfect.
15. When in the country, Jack was up before dawn.
In each of these sentences, the subject is preceded by an adverb (see Lesson 27) oradverbial clause, a group of words typically giving information about time, place,
or manner.Test yourself 38.4Underline the subject in each of the sentences below. The subject will not necessarily be the ¢rst
noun phrase in the sentence.
Sample: By late afternoon, he is usually exhausted.Getting started (answers on p. 189)
1. After that, their neighbor came more often to
help them.
2. Fortunately, that university program is
accredited.
3. In the morning, I’m planting those £owers.
4. Eventually, Mr. Mulligan broke the
silence.
5. While running for o⁄ce, the candidate
campaigned vigorously.More practice (answers on the website)
6. Generally speaking, they don’t know many
foreign languages.
7. Dr.Wright’s chau¡eur drove him to the
clinic.
8. For many reasons, Michael prefers to live in
the suburbs.
9. This movie lasted a long time.
10. Exciting times are much more memorable
than boring ones.U N I T 1 3 : S U B J E C T S A N D O B J E C T S172
Lesson 39: Direct objectsAs we saw in Lesson 38, a noun phrase can function as the subject of a sentence. A noun
phrase can also have other functions. For example, a noun phrase may be acted upon by
the subject and follow the verb. These noun phrases are called direct objects.The direct
objects in the sentences below are underlined:
1. John baked a cake.
2. Leah had visualized a simple room.
3. She is buying a small studio apartment.
4. My niece rented a movie last night.
How can you tell which noun phrase in a sentence functions as the direct object? In general, the direct object is the answer to the questions: ‘‘Who or what is being acted upon?
Who or what is receiving the action?’’ Thus, for example, in the sentence My niece rented a
movie last night, the direct object is a movie, since a movie is what is being acted upon
(being rented). Typically, direct objects occur immediately after the verb. (We discuss a
di¡erent pattern in Lesson 40.)Quick tip 39.1The direct object of a sentence is receiving the action. It can usually be found by answering
the question: ‘‘Who or what is being acted upon or receiving the action?’’ The direct object
typically occurs immediately after the verb.Test yourself 39.1Underline the direct object in each of the sentences below. Be sure to ask yourself who or what is
being acted upon or receiving the action.
Sample: I saw a statue in the museum.Getting started (answers on p. 189)
1. You must include all relevant facts.
2. Bridget is asking numerous questions.
3. The Spanish ships needed fresh supplies.
4. She will watch the baby.
5. The townspeople have wanted tax relief for
years.More practice (answers on the website)
6. Most people greeted us warmly at the
reception.
7. I bought two bottles of Pepsi.
8. Actors must memorize their lines.
9. Last week, Jack renewed his passport.
10. Where did you get that sweater?
Not all sentences have direct objects. Here are examples of sentences with action verbs
that do not have direct objects.173
5. My friend laughed loudly.
6. Mr.Thomas slept well.
7. You’re always worrying.
You may remember, from Lesson 10, that there are transitive and intransitive verbs.
Transitive verbs, like bake or rent, act on something or someone and so they have direct
objects. Intransitive verbs, like laugh, sleep, and worry, aren’t acting upon something or
someone and so don’t have direct objects.
What about these next sentences?
8. My friend stopped at the grocery store.
9. Mr.Thomas slept well during the night.
10. You’re always worrying about something.
As you can see, these sentences have prepositional phrases, which are underlined
(Lesson 29). A prepositional phrase is not a direct object. For example, at the grocery storein sentence 8 and during the night in sentence 9 are not being acted upon.
To sum up, only transitive action verbs have direct objects, and prepositional phrases
are not direct objects.

Test yourself 39.2
Decide whether or not each sentence below has a direct object.Direct object?	Yes	No
Sample: Her best friend entered the room ¢rst.	...................
Getting started (answers on p. 190) 1. We’ll discuss each argument.	...................	...................
2. Carter worked for a lumber company.	...................	...................
3. Those gamblers are losing their money.	...................	...................
4. At 7 P.M. we left for the theater.	...................	...................
5. The children are enjoying Disneyland.	...................	...................
More practice (answers on the website) 6. I slept well last night.	...................	...................
7. They watch football on Sunday nights.	...................	...................
8. Jill and Sam have left with a friend.	...................	...................
9. Can you pass the butter, please?	...................	...................
10. She wants a big scoop of chocolate ice cream.	...................	...................

What about this next sentence?
11. She is a doctor.
Is a doctor receiving the action of is? Kind of a strange question, isn’t it? That’s because isis not an action verb; it’s a linking verb (see Lesson 9). Sentences with linking verbs don’t
have direct objects, since there is no action happening in the sentence. In each sentence
below, the linking verb is italicized.The underlined portion of each sentence is not a direct
object, since it’s not being acted upon. Instead, it’s called theverb complement.U N I T 1 3 : S U B J E C T S A N D O B J E C T S174
12. My teacher resembles Tom Cruise.
13. That dinner was delicious.
14. Her husband became a lawyer.Test yourself 39.3Decide if the underlined phrase in each sentence below is a direct object or a verb complement.To
make this decision, you can: (1)ask yourself if something or someone is being acted upon, and/or
(2)decide if the verb is an action or linking verb.
Sample: Bill became a member of the President’s cabinet. verb complement

Getting started (answers on p. 190) 1. Gerald has taken that course.	.....................................................................
2. Rob used this technique in his restaurant.	.....................................................................
3. Adam might withdraw his resignation.	.....................................................................
4. Themayoris sounding con¢dent.	.........................................................................
5. We quickly got ready.	.....................................................................
More practice (answers on the website) 6. He was getting a pastrami sandwich in the deli.	.....................................................................
7. She loves her new car	.....................................................................
8. We were best friends in high school.	.....................................................................
9. I’ll take you to the movies.	.....................................................................
10. He feels foolish.	.....................................................................
Test yourself 39.4

Underline the direct objects in the sentences below. Not all sentences will have a direct object.
Sample: I put the letter in his mailbox.Getting started (answers on p. 190)
1. Our discussion was highly entertaining.
2. He had a growing family.
3. She quickly got indignant.
4. You must be the new baby sitter.
5. The sheri¡ arrested a suspect in the fraud
investigation.More practice (answers on the website)
6. The coach of the University of Texas football
team is replacing his quarterback.
7. They walked in the woods till sunset.
8. I proposed some tentative solutions.
9. He confessed on the second day of the trial.
10. Our plane had left on time.Test yourself 39.5Underline the subjects and put a squiggly line under the direct objects in the sentences below.
Sample: His company was losing millions.Lesson 39: Direct objects175
Getting started (answers on p. 190)
1. The soldiers ¢red their weapons.
2. Atalented designer made that hat.
3. She had married her next-door
neighbor.
4. Maria was watching her favorite soap
opera.
5. These people really irritate me.More practice (answers on the website)
6. Sonya has found the directions to the party.
7. He added salt to his soup.
8. The contestant had to make a di⁄cult
decision.
9. Rhonda is expecting her third child.
10. Last week, Martin’s friends bought a
present for his birthday.U N I T 1 3 : S U B J E C T S A N D O B J E C T S176
Lesson 40: Indirect objectsSometimes a noun phrase is the answer to the question: ‘‘Who or what is receiving the
direct object?’’ This noun phrase is called the indirect object. The indirect objects are
underlined in the sentences below.
1. Mary gave the information to Robert.
2. She told the truth to her granddaughter.
3. They bought a car for their teenage daughter.
4. The accountant is giving a present to her husband.
So in sentence 4, for instance, the noun phrase a present is the direct object and the noun
phrase her husband is the indirect object, since her husband is receiving the present, the
direct object.Quick tip 40.1The indirect object of a sentence can be found by answering the question: ‘‘Who or what is
receiving the direct object?’’You can see that sentences that have indirect objects must also have direct objects, since
indirect objects receive direct objects. The opposite is not true: sentences with direct
objects don’t necessarily have indirect objects.
Adirect object and an indirect object each follows the verb and is referred to by the termobject. The term object can also refer to objects of a preposition, that is, noun phrases
that follow prepositions. (See Lesson 29.)Test yourself 40.1Underline the indirect object in each of the sentences below.
Sample: Jane baked the cake for Grant.Getting started (answers on p. 190)
1. Holly left the plate for Luke.
2. She taught the principles to the class.
3. Big Bird is telling the story to all the
children.
4. His father had bought the boat forJonathan.
5. You will show the money to me.More practice (answers on the website)
6. Jamie’s friend sent a text message to her.
7. They bid farewell to their house guests.
8. The teenage idol is throwing a party for his
fans.
9. I want to wish good luck to you.
10. My dad baked a pie for us.
Indirect objects are introduced by the preposition to or for. Some verbs, such as tell andshow, use to to introduce an indirect object, while some verbs, such as buy and leave, use for.177
To and for do not function only to introduce indirect objects; often, to and for have other
functions.Take a look at these next sentences and notice the di¡erences between them:
5. Mary gave the baby to Robert.
6. Mary carried the baby to the corner.
In both sentences, Mary is the subject, the doer of the action, and the baby is the direct
object, the receiver of the action. In sentence 5, Robert is receiving the baby, the direct
object, so Robert is the indirect object. However, in sentence 6 the corner is not receivingthebaby and soit’s not theindirect object.(It’s the object of the prepositionto; see Lesson 29.)
Here’s a similar pair of sentences:
7. He got a gift for his wife.
8. He got a gift for his birthday.
In both sentences, He is the subject, the doer of the action, and a gift is the direct
object, the receiver of the action. In sentence 7, his wife is receiving a gift, the
direct object, so his wife is the indirect object. However, in sentence 8 his birthdayis not receiving a gift, so it’s not the indirect object. (It’s the object of the preposition for.)Test yourself 40.2For each of the sentences below, indicate whether or not to and for are being used to introduce
an indirect object. Ask yourself if the noun phrase following to or for is receiving the direct
object.Introducing an indirect object?
Yes No

Sample: I inspected the car for dents.	...................
Getting started (answers on p. 190) 1. John worked that job for ¢fty years.	...................	...................
2. The professor is showing the problem to the student.	...................	...................
3. His wife and child brought fruit to him at the hospital.	...................	...................
4. Tom has left the company for another job.	...................	...................
5. The visiting king thanked the president for his hospitality.	...................	...................
More practice (answers on the website) 6. She sent the e-mail to her sister.	...................	...................
7. We will remember this general for his heroism.	...................	...................
8. I have forwarded your message to your mother.	...................	...................
9. He took his friend to the theater.	...................	...................
10. The Black family took a ride to the countryside.	...................	...................

Here are sentences 1^4 again, but this time with a‘‘partner’’sentence:
9a. Mary gave the information to Robert.
9b. Mary gave Robert the information.U N I T 1 3 : S U B J E C T S A N D O B J E C T S178
10a. She told the truth to her granddaughter.
10b. She told her granddaughter the truth.
11a. They bought a car for their teenage daughter.
11b. They bought their teenage daughter a car.
12a. The accountant is giving a present to him.
12b. The accountant is giving him a present.
You can see that in the second sentence of each pair, the indirect object has
moved so that it comes before the direct object, rather than after it. English gives
us two choices for the position of indirect objects: (a) the indirect object can occur
after the direct object (which follows the verb), with to or for introducing it, or (b)
the indirect object can occur before the direct object (and after the verb), withoutto or for.Quick tip 40.2An indirect object can occur: (a) after the direct object (which follows the verb), with toor for introducing it, or (b) before the direct object (and after the verb), without to or for.
For example: Joan gave a present to Bill or Joan gave Bill a present. (Bill is the indirect
object in both sentences.)Quick tip 40.3To help you decide if a sentence has an indirect object, see if the sentence can be changed
from a pattern like The boys left a note for their teacher to a sentence with a pattern likeThe boys left their teacher a note, or vice versa.Note that when the direct object is a pronoun, the two patterns are not both possible, as
you can see in these next sentence pairs:
13a. Her best friend bought it for her family.
13b. *Her best friend bought her family it.
14a. Lucy sold them to her neighbor.
14b. *Lucy sold her neighbor them.
That is, when the direct object is a pronoun, it must come before the indirect object.Quick tip 40.4If the direct object is a pronoun, it must come before the indirect object. Example: My sister
sent it to her friend, *My sister sent her friend it.Test yourself 40.3Each sentence below contains an indirect object, which is underlined. Change each
sentence to the other pattern, by moving the indirect object and either deleting or adding toor for.
Sample: Sally made us breakfast. Sally made breakfast for us.Lesson 40: Indirect objects179
Getting started (answers on p. 191)
1. The principal might show the ¢lm to her students..............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................2. Mrs. Hausen sent the company her check..............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................3. We bought the house for our parents..............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................4. The referee threw me the ball..............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................5. The artist is drawing a sketch for her patron..............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................More practice (answers on the website)
6. I am saving this seat for my father...........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................7. My colleague did me a favor............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................8. Albert passed his friend a note...........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................9. She will read her children a poem...........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................10. The boss wished much success to his new employee...........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................Test yourself 40.4Each sentence below contains an indirect object (not underlined). Change each sentence to the
other pattern, by moving the indirect object and either deleting or adding to or for.
Sample: Steve gave Mary a package. Steve gave a package to Mary.Getting started (answers on p. 191)
1. He will send the poem to his ¢ancee.  .............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................U N I T 1 3 : S U B J E C T S A N D O B J E C T S180
2. The professor is e-mailing the students his comments...........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................3. That company built a ship for the navy...........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................4. She drew a picture for her son...........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................5. Amanda’s friend was throwing a party for her...........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................More practice (answers on the website)
6. I sang a lullaby to you...........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................7. The company’s president had shipped the order to them............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................8. The librarian found George a good book...........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................9. The arresting o⁄cer must read his rights to him...........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................10. My aunt baked me my favorite dessert...........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................Test yourself 40.5Underline the indirect object in each sentence below. It can occur either before or after the direct
object.
Sample: Jerry made me that bench.Getting started (answers on p. 191)
1. We found a dress for her.
2. Mr. Duquesne has brought him the plans.
3. The old hunter told us the story.
4. The instructor is ordering this book for the
students in his class.
5. I never promised you a rose
garden.More practice (answers on the website)
6. The contractor will build a brand new deck
for me.
7. Can’t she give him a straight answer?
8. The realtor showed them a lovely house.
9. The economist had painted a rosy picture
for his audience.
10. I got you a small present.181Lesson 40: Indirect objects
Test yourself 40.6For each sentence below, underline the direct object and put a squiggly line under the indirect
object, if there is one. Remember, the indirect object can occur either before or after the direct
object.
Sample: That man got his friend a computer.Getting started (answers on p. 191)
1. The children gave the teacher an apple.
2. I brought this for you.
3. The two men clasped hands.
4. This treaty will bene¢t all mankind.
5. She is telling the reporter the truth.More practice (answers on the website)
6. Don’t give me that!
7. We have to return this to the store.
8. At the meeting, he showed us his true colors.
9. People have been telling this story for ages.
10. I bid all of you good night.U N I T 1 3 : S U B J E C T S A N D O B J E C T S182
Lesson 41: The functions of pronounsNow that we’ve talked about subjects and objects in some detail, it’s a good idea for us to
reexamine subject and object pronouns, which we ¢rst discussed in Lesson 21.
Take a look at the noun phrase the teacher in each of the sentences below.
1. The teacher went home early today.
(The teacher is the subject.)
2. The students liked the teacher very much.
(The teacher is the direct object.)
3. The parents gave the questionnaire to the teacher.
(The teacher is the indirect object.)
Notice that the teacher has the same form whether it’s functioning as the subject, the
direct object, or the indirect object in a sentence. This is true for all nouns in English:
they don’t change form when they change function.
In contrast, there are subject pronouns and object pronouns (see Lesson 21). Subject
pronouns are used when a pronoun is functioning as the subject of a sentence (see Lesson
38). The subject pronoun is underlined in the following sentences:
4. I read the newspaper every day.
5. She is happy.
6. We love potato chips.
Object pronouns are used in all other contexts. The three major uses for object
pronouns are: direct object (Lesson 39), indirect object (Lesson 40), and object of a
preposition (Lesson 29). The object pronouns are underlined in the following sentences:
7. My sister congratulated me on my birthday. (direct object)
8. The director sent her a message. (indirect object)
9. Mrs. Ra¡sky spoke to us on the phone. (object of a preposition)Quick tip 41.1A subject pronoun is used when it is functioning as the subject of the sentence. An object
pronoun is used when it is functioning as: (a) the direct object of the sentence; (b) the
indirect object of the sentence; (c) the object of a preposition.Test yourself 41.1For each underlined pronoun below, indicate whether it is a subject or object pronoun. For you andit, you will need to look at how the pronoun is being used in the sentence.Subject pronoun Object pronounSample: I feel great....................

Getting started (answers on p. 191) 1. She laughed at the movie.	...................	...................
2. Don’t bother me now.	...................	...................	183

3. I don’t feel guilty.................... ...................4. He has asked her to dance.................... ...................5. Chris had been living near you.................... ...................More practice (answers on the website)
6. It is not a very interesting movie.................... ...................7. This does not concern us.................... ...................8. He disappointed his friends.................... ...................9. The critics were raving about it.................... ...................10. It doesn’t matter to them at all.................... ...................Test yourself 41.2Each of the sentences below contains an object pronoun, which is underlined. Indicate whether it’s
being used as a direct object, an indirect object, or the object of a preposition.
Sample: Audra lives very far from him. object of a preposition

Getting started (answers on p. 192) 1. My dear friend sent me a postcard from Italy.	....................................................................................................
2. Ateenager sat next to me in the theater.	.....................................................................................................
3. Irma has bought you the cookware.	.....................................................................................................
4. The dog approached them.	.....................................................................................................
5. That family is always blaming us for their problems.	.....................................................................................................
More practice (answers on the website) 6. They gave us their promise.	.....................................................................................................
7. He is renting an apartment close to me.	.....................................................................................................
8. I never saw it.	.....................................................................................................

9. He gave her an ultimatum.....................................................................................................10. Brandon will even buy it from you......................................................................................................To enhance your understandingIn the past, who and whom worked the same way as subject and object pronouns. In
particular, who was used when functioning as a subject and whom was used when
functioning as an object:
10. Who is running away? (subject: Who is doing the action.)
11. Whom does Katie like? (direct object: Whom is receiving the action.)
However, like all languages, English changes over time, and today, for all but the strictest
traditional grammarians, who is used in all contexts, except when it directly follows a
preposition (see below). So today a sentence like the following is perfectly grammatical:
12. Who does Katie like? (direct object)
U N I T 1 3 : S U B J E C T S A N D O B J E C T S184
While most of us prefer to use who in sentence 12, it’s still okay to use whom in these
contexts. It’s just not necessary to do so, and it tends to sound very formal.
Note that whom must be used when it follows a preposition. In the following examples,whom and the preposition before it are underlined.
13. With whom would you like to speak?
14. To whom may I direct your question?Lesson 41: The functions of pronouns185
Lesson 42: Implied subjects: commands1. Open that book right now!
2. Don’t even think about crossing the street here!
3. Please be careful.
We all recognize a command when we hear one.We have seen that all sentences have
a subject, but where is the subject of these commands? Speakers of English readily
agree that these sentences do, in fact, have a subject. The subject, though not stated,
is understood or implied to be you. Thus, when someone says ‘‘Wash the dishes!’’
you know they’re talking to you. Commands are also called imperative sentences.
In writing, command sentences often end with an exclamation point (!).Quick tip 42.1The subject of commands is an understood or implied you.Test yourself 42.1Indicate the subject of each sentence below. If it’s a command, specify you as the subject. (We won’t
be using exclamation points in this exercise.)SubjectSample: Eat a well-balanced diet. you

Getting started (answers on p. 192) 1. These illnesses are treatable.	.............................................................................................................
2. The judge had made a terrible mistake.	..............................................................................................................
3. Be supportive.	.............................................................................................................
4. Joan’s father is an architect.	.............................................................................................................
5. Stand up for your rights.	.............................................................................................................
More practice (answers on the website) 6. Give me a break.	.............................................................................................................
7. I can’t give it to you.	.............................................................................................................
8. Don’t raise your voice to me.	.............................................................................................................
9. Help me out with this.	.............................................................................................................
10. She will be planting roses in that garden.	...............................................................................................................

186
Test yourself 42.2For each sentence below, indicate its subject (stated or understood), direct object, if there is one,
and indirect object, if there is one.Subject Direct Object Indirect ObjectSample: Give the money to Harry. you the money Harry

Getting started (answers on p. 192) 1. You can see marks in the dirt.	......................................	............................................	.........................................
2. That ¢lm sounds interesting.	......................................	............................................	.........................................
3. The congregants built the temple.	......................................	............................................	.........................................
4. Give it to me!	......................................	............................................	.........................................
5. We need this computer.	......................................	............................................	.........................................

To enhance your understandingThere are a number of ways to prove what you, as a speaker of English, intuitively know:
that you is the implicit subject of command sentences. We present one of these arguments
here.
Take a look at the following sentences:
4. I held my breath.
5. You held your breath.
6. He held his breath.
7. She held her breath.
While these sentences are grammatical, the following sentences are not:
8a. *I held your breath.
8b. *I held his breath.
8c. *I held their breath.
9a. *You held my breath.
9b. *You held his breath.
9c. *You held their breath.
Can you explain why these sentences are ungrammatical? Clearly, a person cannot hold
someone else’s breath. Thus the two underlined pronouns must refer to the same person. If
they don’t, the sentence is not grammatical, as in 8 and 9 above.
Now what about commands which contain this same expression? Look at the following
grammatical and ungrammatical commands:
10. Hold your breath!
11. *Hold my breath!
12. *Hold his breath!
13. *Hold their breath!
In fact, the only pronoun allowed in the command context Hold breath! is your.
Since we know that your must refer to the same person as the subject, it follows that the
subject in the command must be you. That is, even though the you is not actually stated, we
treat a command as though the subject were you.Lesson 42: Implied subjects187
More practice (answers on the website)
6. Don’t worry about it!.................................. ......................................... ......................................7. They have been rearranging the display................................... ......................................... ......................................8. They sent Bill the bill................................... ......................................... ......................................9. Watch me!.................................. ......................................... ......................................10. Mary fell to the £oor................................... ......................................... ......................................U N I T 1 3 : S U B J E C T S A N D O B J E C T S188
Answer keys: Test yourself, Getting startedquestions – Unit 13Test yourself 38.11. The servant accompanied His Lordship.
2. Jean participated in theTour de France.
3. Such families have often preferred to travel in style.
4. They could do nothing except run.
5. Mr.Tower quietly explained all this to his son.Test yourself 38.21. The Hotel Regina is an attractive place.
2. It became the best-known symbol of Paris.
3. The local merchants were on his side.
4. Charles looked thoughtful.
5. Christine seemed insecure.Test yourself 38.31. The editor looked for new ideas for the magazine.
2. You can rely on the experts at that company.
3. Maggie usually goes berry picking in the summer.
4. Roger is happy with his new computer.
5. The workers went on strike for a couple of weeks.Test yourself 38.41. After that, their neighbor came more often to help them.
2. Fortunately, that university program is accredited.
3. In the morning, I’m planting those £owers.
4. Eventually, Mr. Mulligan broke the silence.
5. While running for o⁄ce, the candidate campaigned vigorously.Test yourself 39.11. You must include all relevant facts.
2. Bridget is asking numerous questions.
3. The Spanish ships needed fresh supplies.
4. She will watch the baby.
5. The townspeople have wanted tax relief for years.189
Test yourself 39.2

Direct object?	Yes	No
1. We’ll discuss each argument.	...................
2. Carter worked for a lumber company.	...................
3. Those gamblers are losing their money.	...................
4. At 7 P.M. we left for the theater.	...................
5. The children are enjoying Disneyland.	...................
Test yourself 39.3
1. Gerald has taken that course.	direct object
2. Rob used this technique in his restaurant.	direct object
3. Adam might withdraw his resignation.	direct object
4. The mayor is sounding con¢dent.	verb complement
5. We quickly got ready.	verb complement
Test yourself 39.4

1. Our discussion was highly entertaining.
2. He had a growing family.
3. She quickly got indignant.
4. You must be the new baby sitter.
5. The sheri¡ arrested a suspect in the fraud investigation.Test yourself 39.51. The soldiers ¢red their weapons.
2. Atalented designer made that hat.
3. She had married her next-door neighbor.
4. Maria was watching her favorite soap opera.
5. These people really irritate me.Test yourself 40.11. Holly left the plate for Luke.
2. She taught the principles to the class.
3. Big Bird is telling the story to all the children.
4. His father had bought the boat for Jonathan.
5. You will show the money to me.Test yourself 40.2Introducing anindirect object?
Yes No1. John worked that job for ¢fty years.

...................

...................

...................

2. The professor is showing the problem to the student.
3. His wife and child brought fruit to him at the hospital.
4. Tom’s has left the company for another job....................5. The visiting king thanked the president for his hospitality....................U N I T 1 3 : S U B J E C T S A N D O B J E C T S190
Test yourself 40.31. The principal might show the ¢lm to her students.
The principal might show her students the ¢lm.
2. Mrs. Hausen sent the company her check.
Mrs. Hausen sent her check to the company.
3. We bought the house for our parents.
We bought our parents the house.
4. The referee threw me the ball.
The referee threw the ball to me.
5. The artist is drawing a sketch for her patron.
The artist is drawing her patron a sketch.Test yourself 40.41. He will send the poem to his ¢ancee.  He will send his ¢ance e the poem.
2. The professor is e-mailing the students his comments.
The professor is e-mailing his comments to the students.
3. That company built a ship for the navy.
The company built the navy a ship.
4. She drew a picture for her son.
She drew her son a picture.
5. Amanda’s friend was throwing a party for her.
Amanda’s friend was throwing her a party.Test yourself 40.51. We found a dress for her.
2. Mr. Duquesne has brought him the plans.
3. The old hunter told us the story.
4. The instructor is ordering this book for the students in his class.
5. I never promised you a rose garden.Test yourself 40.61. The children gave the teacher an apple.
2. I brought this for you.3. The two men clasped hands.
4. This treaty will bene¢t all mankind.
5. She is telling the reporter the truth.Test yourself 41.1Subject pronoun Object pronoun1. She laughed at the movie....................2. Don’t bother me now....................3. I don’t feel guilty....................4. He has asked her to dance....................5. Chris had been living near you....................Answer keys: Unit 13191

Test yourself 41.2
1. My dear friend sent me a postcard from Italy.	indirect object
2. Ateenager sat next to me in the theater.	object of a preposition
3. Irma has bought you the cookware.	indirect object
4. The dog approached them.	direct object
5. That family is always blaming us for their problems. direct object

Test yourself 42.1Subject1. These illnesses are treatable. these illnesses
2. The judge had made a terrible mistake. the judge
3. Be supportive. you
4. Joan’s father is an architect Joan’s father
5. Stand up for your rights. youTest yourself 42.2Subject Direct object Indirect object1. You can see marks in the dirt. you marks
2. That ¢lm sounds interesting. that ¢lm
3. The congregants built the temple. the congregants the temple
4. Give it to me! you it me
5. We need this computer. we this computer☞ FOR A REVIEW EXERCISE OF THIS UNIT, SEE THE WEBSITE.U N I T 1 3 : S U B J E C T S A N D O B J E C T S192
UNIT 14: COMPOUND PHRASESCoordinating conjunctions, such as and, or, and but, are very powerful. As we discussed
in Lesson 18, they can join any two units of the same type. Here are some examples withand, the most common coordinating conjunction:
1. He gave tennis lessons to the girl and her brother. (two noun phrases joined)
2. I cooked dinner and washed the laundry. (two verb phrases joined)
3. Their beautiful and charming hostess soon put them at ease. (two adjectives
joined)
4. My mother listened to me seriously and patiently. (two adverbs joined)
5. The monkey ran up the tree and around its trunk. (two prepositional phrases
joined)
6. I rode my bike andTeresa walked. (two sentences joined)
In this unit, we’ll take a closer look at joined noun phrases and joined verb phrases.193
Lesson 43: Compound noun phrasesWhat do you notice about this next sentence?
1. My friend worked at the diner and his cousin worked at the diner.
While it’s a perfectly grammatical sentence, we often choose to make it less repetitious
and say instead:
2. My friend and his cousin worked at the diner.
Since and, a coordinating conjunction, is joining two noun phrases here, my friend and
his cousin is called a compound noun phrase.Quick tip 43.1Two noun phrases joined by a coordinating conjunction is called a compound noun phrase.Here are some more examples, with the compound noun phrases underlined.
3. She slipped the photograph and both letters into her pocket.
4. The senator or his assistant will attend the event.
5. I’ll be traveling to Kansas and Missouri next week on business.Test yourself 43.1Underline the compound noun phrases in each of the sentences below.
Sample: The public discovered that the company and its subsidiaries were cheating customers.Getting started (answers on p. 197)
1. They had walked for miles and
miles.
2. Henry felt guilt and shame for what he had
done.
3. Vermont has lots of old houses and rustic
barns.
4. The young bride is going shopping with her
mother or mother-in-law.
5. Paying for gas and electricity costs a lot more
this year than last.More practice (answers on the website)
6. Michael and I have been best friends for
years.
7. Delta Airlines and Air France have £ights to
Paris from the U.S.
8. The lead actress or director will likely win
Oscars.
9. Audi and BMWare owned by German
companies.
10. The president and his foreign visitor held a
joint press conference.194
Lesson 44: Compound verb phrasesWhat do you notice about this next sentence?
1. Frank ran to the store and Frank purchased a few items.
While it’s a perfectly grammatical sentence, we often choose to make it less repetitious
and say instead:
2. Frank ran to the store and purchased a few items.
Since and, a coordinating conjunction, is joining two verb phrases here, ran to the store
and purchased a fewitems is called a compound verb phrase.Quick tip 44.1Two verb phrases joined by a coordinating conjunction is called a compound verb
phrase.Here are some more examples, with the compound verb phrases underlined.
3. The general ran forward and led the troops.
4. She remained calm and followed her instincts.
5. His advisor presents him with good ideas but rarely helps him carry them out.Test yourself 44.1Underline the compound verb phrases in each of the sentences below.
Sample: I’ll phone them and listen to their ideas.Getting started (answers on p. 197)
1. They often call each other and talk all
afternoon.
2. Adamwrote letters to the company and spoke
to their representatives.
3. He invented the product but lost money in the
process.
4. Stephen £ew to Europe and visited his
childhood friend.
5. I received your message yesterday but
couldn’t respond to it immediately.More practice (answers on the website)
6. On Saturday nights Samantha dresses up
and meets with her friends.
7. Once a month or so we stay home and order
dinner in.
8. Politicians do not always walk the walk and
talk the talk.
9. On hot summer days, the O’Briens drive to
the beach and enjoy the sun.
10. This couple ¢ghts but always
makes up.Test yourself 44.2Underline the compound noun phrases and verb phrases in the sentences below. A sentence may
contain more than one compound phrase.
Sample: He and she will probably leave on Friday and return on Sunday.195
Getting started (answers on p. 197)
1. The horse stepped back and rolled its
eyes.
2. Amanda is wearing long sleeves but carrying
a parasol.
3. When Kathy and her daughter travel to
Boston, they always visit Harvard and MIT.
4. On Sundays Mr. Adams and his neighbor
play golf and have lunch in the clubhouse.
5. He loves to cook and entertain.More practice (answers on the website)
6. His youngest son is afraid of thunder and
lightning.
7. Your husband should work hard at his job or
¢nd another one.
8. Harry and his friend often travel to
Washington and visit the Smithsonian.
9. It is common knowledge that theYankees
and the Red Sox are bitter rivals.
10. That would ruin her reputation and end
her career.U N I T 1 4 : C O M P O U N D P H R A S E S196
Answer keys: Test yourself, Getting startedquestions – Unit 14Test yourself 43.11. They had walked for miles and miles.
2. Henry felt guilt and shame for what he had done.
3. Vermont has lots of old houses and rustic barns.
4. The young bride is going shopping with her mother or mother-in-law.
5. Paying for gas and electricity costs a lot more this year than last.Test yourself 44.11. They often call each other and talk all afternoon.
2. Adam wrote letters to the company and spoke to their representatives.
3. He invented the product but lost money in the process.
4. Stephen £ew to Europe and visited his childhood friend.
5. I received your message yesterday but couldn’t respond to it immediately.Test yourself 44.21. The horse stepped back and rolled its eyes.
2. Amanda is wearing long sleeves but carrying a parasol.
3. When Kathy and her daughter travel to Boston, they always visit Harvard and MIT.
4. On Sundays Mr. Adams and his neighbor play golf and have lunch in the clubhouse.
5. He loves to cook and entertain.☞ FOR A REVIEW EXERCISE OF THIS UNIT, SEE THE WEBSITE.197
Review matching exercise and answer key – Part IIReview matching exerciseMatch the underlined word or words in each sentence to the appropriate term in each set.
Use each term only once.
Sample:Warren gave himself an extra serving. verb phraseSet Acompound noun phrase object pronoun prepositional phrase
indirect object perfect tense future tense
modal predicate adjective
1. He has written to you every day..........................................................2. Mrs. McLean is sending the recipe to her sister-in-law..........................................................3. He understands me better than anyone..........................................................4. His companions will take their canoe across the river..........................................................5. Richard was working when Miguel and Sam came by..........................................................6. The building is near the stream..........................................................7. It might be the largest museum in the world..........................................................8. Those decisions can be di⁄cult..........................................................Set Bcompound verb phrase past participle subject pronoun
direct object present participle
main verb progressive tense
1. I’llbuy the food and then cook it...........................................................2. They had come back to buy two copies of the newspaper...........................................................3. Matt ishurrying to his o⁄ce...........................................................4. The old man was chanting a song she’d never heard before...........................................................5. Molly selected her dress early in the day...........................................................6. Herhorse wasbehaving calmly...........................................................7. Johnnyhadeaten a good breakfast...........................................................198
Answer key: Review matching exercise – Part II

Set A
1. He has written to you every day.	perfect tense
2. Mrs. McLean is sending the recipe to her sister-in-law.	indirect object
3. He understands me better than anyone.	object pronoun
4. His companions will take their canoe across the river.	future tense
5. Richard was working when Miguel and Sam came by.	compound noun phrase
6. The building is near the stream.	prepositional phrase
7. It might be the largest museum in the world.	modal
8. Those decisions can be di⁄cult.	predicate adjective
Set B
1. I’ll buy the food and then cook it.	compound verb phrase
2. They had come back to buy two copies of the newspaper.	subject pronoun
3. Matt is hurrying to his o⁄ce.	present participle
4. The old man was chanting a song she’d never heard before.	direct object
5. Molly selected her dress early in the day.	main verb
6. Her horse was behaving calmly.	progressive tense
7. Johnny had eaten a good breakfast.	past participle

Review matching exercise – Part II199

PART III: GETTING STARTED WITH SENTENCESAs you’ve seen, in language we combine words to form phrases.We also combine phrases
to form sentences, and there are various kinds of sentences. For example, there are statements and questions, simple sentences and combinations of sentences, and negative sentences and positive sentences. In Part III, we begin to explore di¡erent kinds of
sentences, looking at the functions of sentences (Unit 15), how sentences can be combined
(Unit 16), and the relationships between di¡erent sentences (Unit 17). Our goal is to help
you recognize some of the more common and important sentence types.

UNIT 15: THE FUNCTIONS OF SENTENCESLesson 45: Identifying sentences by functionOne way that a sentence can be described is according to the job that it’s doing in a conversation. Compare these sentences:
1. That clown was funny.
2. Is she a physician?
3. Please wash the dishes.
4. What an exciting movie!
You know that sentence 1 is making a statement, sentence 2 is asking a question, sentence 3 is giving a command, and sentence 4 is expressing a strong emotion. These functions are summarized in Quick tip 45.1.Quick tip 45.1Sentences that make a statement are called declaratives; sentences that ask a question are
called interrogatives; sentences that give a command are called imperatives; sentences
that express strong emotion are called exclamations.

Here are a few more examples: 5. Edward’s parents live on a farm.	(declarative)
6. Have you accepted the fact that she’ll never move?	(interrogative)
7. Don’t believe a word she says!	(imperative)
8. That’s silly!	(exclamation)
Test yourself 45.1

Identify each of the sentences below as either declarative, interrogative, imperative, or
exclamation.
Sample: How old are you now? interrogativeGetting started (answers on p. 206)
1. I’m shocked!................................................................................................................2. Rose and Charles are getting married in that house.................................................................................................................3. What a surprising announcement!................................................................................................................4. The weather was awful yesterday.................................................................................................................5. Watch out for that car!................................................................................................................More practice (answers on the website)
6. Didn’t we have fun together?................................................................................................................7. What a performance!................................................................................................................8. Would you want to rent a movie tonight?................................................................................................................203
9. That was ridiculous!..........................................................................................................................................................................................10. Write that down, please!..........................................................................................................................................................................................Let’s take a closer look at questions:
9. Do you like learning about sentences?
10. What do you like best?
11. You would rather be listening to music, wouldn’t you?
These sentences demonstrate three di¡erent kinds of questions. Sentence 9 is an example of a yes/no question, because it can be answered with just a ‘‘yes’’ or ‘‘no.’’ Here are
some more yes/no questions:
12. Did you enjoy the music?
13. Is the television working?
14. Are you interested in applying for that job?Quick tip 45.2A yes/no question is one that can be answered by ‘‘yes’’ or ‘‘no.’’Sentence 10 is called a wh- question because it begins with a wh- word, or question
word.Quick tip 45.3A wh- question begins with one of the following wh- words (question words): when,where, what, why, which, who, whom, how. Example: Where is the meeting?Notice that how is a wh- word, even though it doesn’t begin with wh-.
Wh- questions cannot be answered with a ‘‘yes’’ or ‘‘no.’’ Imagine the following bizarre
dialogues:
15a. What time is it?
15b. Yes.
16a. Where are you going?
16b. No.
17a. Which dress should I wear?
17b. Yes.
You get the point.
Here are some more examples of wh- questions:
18. Why did they buy that house?
19. When should we meet?
20. How does that work?
The third kind of question, called a tag question, is demonstrated by sentence 11above.
Here are some more tag questions:
21. He’s having a great time, isn’t he?
22. It rained last night, didn’t it?
23. Mrs.Williams was working hard, wasn’t she?U N I T 1 5 : T H E F U N C T I O N S O F S E N T E N C E S204
In tag questions, there’s a regular statement followed by a tag; the tag is underlined in
these examples.Quick tip 45.4A tag question contains a statement followed by a tag, such as could you? aren’t they?
hasn’t he? Example: She is leaving soon, isn’t she?Test yourself 45.2Decide if each question below is a yes/no question, wh- question, or tag question.
Sample:Why did he call his attorney? wh- question

Getting started (answers on p. 206) 1. He’s not really crazy, is he?	.........................................................................................................................
2. Which is yours?	........................................................................................................................
3. Are you interested?	........................................................................................................................
4. Is the evidence against him compelling?	.........................................................................................................................
5. We have seen this before, haven’t we?	.........................................................................................................................
More practice (answers on the website) 6. How did you respond to his question?	.........................................................................................................................
7. When did they leave last night?	........................................................................................................................
8. Are you leaving already?	........................................................................................................................
9. Joan is an accomplished woman, isn’t she?	........................................................................................................................
10. Is there anything left in the cookie jar?	........................................................................................................................

Lesson 45: Identifying sentences by function205
Answer keys: Test yourself, Getting startedquestions – Unit 15

Test yourself 45.1
1. I’m shocked!	exclamation
2. Rose and Charles are getting married in that house.	declarative
3. What a surprising announcement!	exclamation
4. The weather was awful yesterday.	declarative
5. Watch out for that car!	imperative
Test yourself 45.2
1. He’s not really crazy, is he?	tag question
2. Which is yours?	wh- question
3. Are you interested?	yes/no question
4. Is the evidence against him compelling?	yes/no question
5. We have seen this before, haven’t we?	tag question

☞ FOR A REVIEW EXERCISE OF THIS UNIT, SEE THE WEBSITE.206
UNIT 16: COMBINING SENTENCESLesson 46: Simple sentencesMost of the sentences we’ve looked at so far in this book are simple sentences, which
means that they are sentences that are made up of just one sentence. But sentences can be
made up of more than one sentence. Let’s start by looking at a few sentences and comparing them.
1. The little boy laughed.
2. The little boy laughed and the little girl smiled.
3. The little boy laughed and the little girl smiled and their dog ran around in
circles.
You can see that sentence 2 consists of two sentences joined by and and that sentence 3 consists of three sentences joined by and. Each of the sentences that make
up a larger sentence is called a clause. So sentence 1 contains one clause, sentence
2 contains two clauses, and sentence 3 contains three clauses. Just as words combine
to form phrases, phrases combine to form clauses, and clauses can combine to form
sentences. A clause must contain at least a noun phrase functioning as the subject
and a main verb.Quick tip 46.1A clause is a free-standing sentence or a sentence within a sentence; a clause or sentence
contains at least a subject and a main verb.Quick tip 46.2A sentence can contain one or more clauses.Here are some more examples of sentences containing only one clause:
4. That magazine looks interesting.
5. The o⁄cer followed the rules.
6. She greeted me at the door.
Notice that each contains only one subject and one verb phrase.Quick tip 46.3A sentence that contains only one clause, that is, one subject and one verb phrase, is called
a simple sentence.Are the following simple sentences?
7. on the £oor
8. the extremely tall boy
9. were reading newspapers on the train207
None of these contains both a subject and a verb phrase, and so these are not sentences at
all; they’re just phrases.You may recognize sentence 7 as a preposition phrase, sentence 8
as a noun phrase, and sentence 9 as a verb phrase. (See Lessons 28, 29, and 30.)Test yourself 46.1In each simple sentence below, underline the subject and put a squiggly line beneath the verb
phrase.
Sample: David listened to her response.Getting started (answers on p. 231)
1. The committee presented its ideas
to Congress.
2. I stayed in bed that day.
3. Nobody moved.
4. My favorite hotel is on Park Avenue.
5. I overslept today.More practice (answers on the website)
6. We enjoy cruising on the Mississippi River.
7. Our cousin lives about an hour from us.
8. The young architect arrives in his o⁄ce at
8:30 A.M. each weekday.
9. Whales are mammals.
10. Rain is good for the environment.

Test yourself 46.2
Decide if each item below is a simple sentence or just a phrase. Sample: walking nearby	phrase
Getting started (answers on p. 231) 1. I have never eaten caviar.	..............................................................................
2. The department stores are having a sale this weekend.	..............................................................................
3. Expensive antique jewelry.	..............................................................................
4. Our home on the ranch.	..............................................................................
5. Fresh-cut £owers on the table.	..............................................................................
More practice (answers on the website) 6. Sailing around the world.	..............................................................................
7. Sang my favorite song.	..............................................................................
8. She is paying for her own tuition.	..............................................................................
9. Exercising can leave you exhausted.	..............................................................................
10. The bus is approaching.	..............................................................................

What about sentences like the following?
10. That magazine and those books look interesting.
11. The o⁄cer and his men followed the rules.
12. She and her husband greeted me at the door.U N I T 1 6 : C O M B I N I N G S E N T E N C E S208
The underlined part of each sentence is a compound noun phrase (see Lesson 43) and is
considered to be one subject. So these sentences are all simple sentences.The same thing
is true of compound verb phrases:
13. That magazine looks and seems interesting.
14. The o⁄cer followed the rules and saved the day.
15. She met and greeted me at the door.
The underlined parts of sentences 13^15 are compound verb phrases (see Lesson 44) and
each is considered to be one verb phrase. So, again, these sentences are all simple
sentences.Lesson 46: Simple sentences209
Lesson 47: Compound sentencesAs we mentioned in Lesson 46, a sentence can contain more than one sentence within it,
for example:
1. Jane put the glass vase on the table and her mother picked it up.
This is an example of a compound sentence. It actually contains two sentences. The
¢rst is: Jane put the glass vase on the table. The second is: Her mother picked it up. Since a
sentence within a sentence is called a clause, we can also say that sentence 1 contains two
clauses. Just as a simple sentence must contain at least a subject and a verb phrase, each
of the sentences (clauses) within a compound sentence must contain its own subject and
verb phrase.
Recall from Lesson18 that conjunctions, like and, or, and but, join things. In fact, the two
sentences within sentence 1 are joined by the conjunction and. Recall also that there are
two kinds of conjunctions, coordinating and subordinating.The sentences in a compound
sentence are joined together by a coordinating conjunction. As we discussed in Lesson
18, there are three common coordinating conjunctions; they are and, or, and but. Four
less common ones are for, so, yet, and nor. (Remember FANBOYS, which contains the ¢rst
letter of each.)Quick tip 47.1A sentence that is made up of two or more sentences (clauses) joined by a coordinating
conjunction (most commonly and, or, and but) is called a compound sentence.Test yourself 47.1Each of the sentences below is a compound sentence consisting of two sentences (clauses).
Underline each of the sentences which is in the compound sentence.
Sample: I felt restless after breakfast and I wandered around the house.Getting started (answers on p. 231)
1. Andre pulled the car into the street,
and Beth began reading the directions.
2. She enjoyed shopping for food, but she
especially enjoyed cooking.
3. Ican do this now, or Ican do it later.
4. Dan does not feel well, yet he wants to
go in to work.
5. We missed our £ight, so we have to
wait around the airport for the next
available one.More practice (answers on the website)
6. He does not like to changehis mind, nor is he
willing to compromise.
7. You deserve your good fortune, for you have
a heart of gold.
8. The players are running onto the ¢eld, and
then they are beginning to practice.
9. Stephanie likes to go to concerts, but she
will not see an opera.
10. You can pay with cash, or you can take out a
loan.210
Test yourself 47.2Decide if each sentence below is a simple sentence or a compound sentence. Remember that a
simple sentence contains just one sentence (clause) while a compound sentence contains at least
two sentences joined by a coordinating conjunction.
Sample:Wallace stared at him in the grocery store. simple

Getting started (answers on p. 231) 1. He can’t blame her for the problem.	...............................................................
2. Beth left the library, and she headed straight home.	.................................................................
3. He was watching her, but she was pretending not to notice.	...............................................................
4. We like him a lot.	...............................................................
5. The coach wants to win, but he will be happy with a tie.	...............................................................
More practice (answers on the website) 6. It will be a sunny day.	................................................................
7. Jeremy likes his wife’s new dress.	................................................................
8. I will have a bowl of soup, but I don’t want salad.	...............................................................
9. Sam called me at noon.	...............................................................
10. He will be going to Penn State, or he’ll study at Temple University.	...............................................................

A compound sentence can contain more than two sentences:
2. Nora was Zach’s stepmother but she treated him like her other children and he
trusted her completely.
Here, the three sentences that make up this sentence are: (1) Nora was Zach’s stepmother; (2) she treated him like her other children; (3) he trusted her completely. So the
sentenceThere was a glass vase on the table and Jane picked it up contains two sentences,
or clauses. The sentence Nora was Zach’s stepmother but she treated him like her other
children and he trusted her completely contains three sentences, or clauses. In fact, a
compound sentence can contain any number of sentences, though we usually limit
ourselves to just a few:
3. He turned his head away and he pretended to ignore her but he continued
to listen to her and in fact he hung on her every word. (4 sentences or clauses)
Keep in mind that you can’t tell if a sentence is simple or compound by how long it is; you
need to see if it contains one or more than one complete sentence within it. For example,
the following sentence, although it is long, is just a simple sentence:
4. The tall man with the violin case quickly climbed the stairs to the abandoned
warehouse near the railroad tracks.
This is a simple sentence because it has just one subject, the tall man with the violin case,
and one verb phrase ^ notice that there is just one verb, climbed. (The sentence is just
long because it contains a few preposition phrases.) And the following sentence, although
it is short, is a compound sentence: Johnlaughed and Mary cried. It’s a compound sentence
because it contains two sentences that can stand alone: John laughed; Mary cried. Each of
these has its own subject and verb phrase.Lesson 47: Compound sentences211
Test yourself 47.3Each sentence below is either a simple or compound sentence. Identify the number of
clauses in each sentence. If there is more than one clause in the sentence, underline each
clause.

Sample:The bear watched his movements closely.	1
Getting started (answers on p. 231) 1. Vicki was always looking at herself in the mirror, but MaryAnn was extremely self-con¢dent, and she never gave herself a second glance.	...................
2. Her father was devoted to her.	...................
3. Our ¢rm’s CEO will be £ying to Chicago next week, but he’ll be returning the same day.	...................
4. The lady in the elegant blue dress entered the well-lit room with her perky little dog in her arms.	...................
5. Our boat was hit with strong winds, and we had to return to our cabins.	...................
More practice (answers on the website) 6. We don’t have much time left in the zoo, but we should visit the bird cage, and we must see the monkeys, or we should at least feed the goats in the petting area, but I de¢nitely want to take a look at the elephants.	...................
7. We can catch a movie, or we can visit a museum, but we won’t be seeing a Broadway show.	...................
8. Many people walk in the woods in autumn.	...................
9. The economy is getting worse, and many people are worried about their jobs.	...................
10. My car is getting old, and it’s pretty banged up, but I hope to get another year out of it.	...................

Keep in mind that a compound phrase (Lessons 43 and 44) is not the same thing as a
compound sentence. For example, the following sentence has a compound noun phrase
(underlined):
5. The teacher graded the students’exams and their papers.
We’ve certainly got a coordinating conjunction, and, in sentence 5. However, the question
is, what is the and joining? If we look at what’s on each side of the and, we ¢nd the following: The teacher graded the students’ exams, which is a sentence, and their papers; their
papers is not a sentence by itself. In this case, the conjunction and is joining two noun
phrases: the students’ exams and their papers. It’s not joining two complete sentences, and
so the sentence is not a compound sentence but is a simple sentence.Test yourself 47.4Decide if each sentence below is a simple or compound sentence. Remember that a compound
sentence contains a complete sentence on either side of the conjunction.212U N I T 1 6 : C O M B I N I N G S E N T E N C E S
Sample: Kyle turned around and stared at the screen. simpleGetting started (answers on p. 231)
1. It was a scene of joy but one thing spoiled the moment................................................2. The boxer fell to his knees but he managed to get back up................................................3. The designer and his assistants quickly brought order to the chaos................................................4. Matt was driving to NewYork with his kids and his neighbor’s son................................................5. I like to drink co¡ee or tea after dinner................................................More practice (answers on the website)
6. The weather is already getting chilly, but I am not ready for winter just yet..................................................7. His speech should be brief and to the point................................................8. You must get ready immediately or I’ll leave without you................................................9. The £ight attendant o¡ered me beef or chicken for the entree.  ...............................................10. She likes classical music but rarely goes to concerts................................................Lesson 47: Compound sentences213
Lesson 48: Complex sentencesIn the last lesson, we talked about compound sentences such as:
1. Beth said hello to her mother’s friend and then she walked outside.
Each of the sentences (clauses) that is part of the compound sentence plays an equal role
in the sentence; one clause is not superior to or more important than the other, in terms
of the structure of the sentence.
Now let’s look at some other sentences:
2. Harry was only ¢fteen when his mother sent him away to school.
3. Mr. Edwards looked her straight in the eye although he wasn’t really
sincere.
4. I won’t tell you the answer unless you agree to help.
Sentences 2^4 also each contain two sentences, or clauses, which are combined to
make a larger sentence. However, one of these sentences is more important than the
other.The more important sentence is called the main clause, or independent clause;
the less important sentence, the one that is a subpart of the main clause, is called the
dependent clause or subordinate clause (see Lesson 19). Each clause, whether it’s a
main clause or subordinate clause, has its own subject and verb phrase. Sentences
that contain a main clause and at least one dependent clause are called complex
sentences.
The main clause of each of the following sentences is in bold; the dependent clause is
underlined:
5. Harry was only ¢fteen when his mother sent him away to school.
6. Mr. Edwards looked her straight in the eye although he wasn’t really
sincere.
7. I won’t tell you the answer unless you agree to help.Quick tip 48.1A complex sentence consists of at least two sentences (clauses): a main clause and a
dependent clause. The dependent clause is a subpart of the main clause and adds
information to it. Example, with the dependent clause underlined: Sally visited her before
she moved.Recall that, in a compound sentence, the clauses are joined by a coordinating conjunction such as and, or, and but. In a complex sentence, the dependent clause is joined
to the rest of the sentence by a subordinating conjunction. (We introduced subordinating conjunctions in Lesson 19; you may want to check back there to refresh your memory.) The common subordinating conjunctions of English are repeated here for
reference.214
after even though than whenever
although how that where
as if though wherever
as if in order that till whether
as though once unless while
because rather than until which
before since what who
even if so (that) when whyQuick tip 48.2A dependent clause is joined to another clause by a subordinating conjunction such asalthough, if, where.Quick tip 48.3The easiest way to identify a dependent clause is to look for a subordinating conjunctionand see if it’s followed by a sentence. If it is, then the subordinating conjunction plus the
sentence directly following it is a dependent clause.Test yourself 48.1For each complex sentence below, underline the dependent clause. Remember to look for the
subordinating conjunction, which is the ¢rst word of the dependent clause.
Sample: Helen stared in dismay at the £oor after she opened the dining room door.Getting started (answers on p. 232)
1. His father is returning to London because
the furniture is arriving.
2. Selma smiled at him although she had never
felt less like smiling.
3. He felt a great a¡ection for his guardian until
he discovered the truth.
4. I am going to solve this crossword puzzle
even if it takes me all day.
5. James accepted the job before he checked
with his wife.More practice (answers on the website)
6. Sammy passed the ¢nal exam even though
he had not studied hard.
7. You are behaving as if you were the
boss.
8. I will not speak to you unless you tell me the
truth.
9. New Orleans has not been the same since it
was devastated by a hurricane.
10. Al tries to speak French when he is in
Montreal.
In the complex sentences we’ve looked at so far, the dependent clause follows the main
clause. But sometimes the dependent clause comes before the main clause. (Again, seeLesson 19.) In these next examples of complex sentences, the dependent clauses are
underlined:Lesson 48: Complex sentences215
8. After he uttered her name, an awful silence fell on the room.
9. While we hurried to the restaurant, the rain continued to pour.
10. Even though she was a di⁄cult woman, they had a good marriage.Test yourself 48.2For each complex sentence below, underline the dependent clause. Remember to look for the
subordinating conjunction, which is the ¢rst word of the dependent clause.The dependent clause
will either be before or after the main clause.
Sample: If you continue on this highway, you’ll end up in the wrong place.Getting started (answers on p. 232)
1. WhenElizabethspoke,Benlistenedattentively.
2. Before you blame him, think about your own
responsibility.
3. You should pay for automobile insurance
even if your car is old.
4. Unless the train arrives soon, we’ll miss our
appointment.
5. The district attorney won’t rest till he ¢nds
the perpetrator.More practice (answers on the website)
6. While you were away, important changes
took place.
7. As you know, UCLAwon the Pac-10
championship.
8. If you really want it, I will loan you my
laptop.
9. After he was released from the hospital, he
had to rest for a week.
10. She is going to succeed wherever she ends up.Test yourself 48.3For each complex sentence below, underline the subject of the dependent clause (not of the main
clause).
Sample: I had an interesting conversation with him while we were walking home.Getting started (answers on p. 232)
1. Even though the village supported the
emperor, it still paid numerous taxes.
2. I like to sit on the balcony when the
weather is nice.
3. Georgediditbecauseherecognizedthewoman.
4. Once I have made up my mind, I usually do
not change it.
5. Someone rang the doorbell while we were
having lunch.More practice (answers on the website)
6. Zachary was behaving as though he knew
the answer.
7. She was not sure whether she should travel
to that country.
8. The bus arrived at the station before I could
¢nish the newspaper.
9. They started learning Chinese so that they
could understand their in-laws better.
10. After you left, I began washing the dishes.
A complex sentence contains only one main clause, but it can contain more than one
dependent clause. In the following examples, there is a main clause and two dependent
clauses. The main clause is again in bold; the dependent clauses are underlined. Notice
that we sometimes have £exibility in terms of the placement of each of the clauses.U N I T 1 6 : C O M B I N I N G S E N T E N C E S216
11a. Harry was only ¢fteen when his mother sent him away to school, although he
looked much older.
11b. When his mother sent him away to school, Harry was only ¢fteen, although
he looked much older.
11c. Although he looked much older when his mother sent him away to school,Harry was only ¢fteen.
12a. I won’t tell you the answer unless you agree to help, because this issue is
con¢dential.
12b. Unless you agree to help, I won’t tell you the answer, because this issue is
con¢dential.
12c. Because this issue is con¢dential, unless you agree to help, I won’t tellyou the
answer.Test yourself 48.4For each sentence below, decide if it is a simple sentence or a complex sentence. Some complex
sentences will have more than one dependent clause.
Sample:Those two brothers always dress alike. simple

Getting started (answers on p. 232) 1. The two horses thrived on the ranch because they received excellent care.	..................................
2. Another little girl will be arriving at the school before noon today.	..................................
3. The old housekeeper welcomed her warmly when her mother was present.	...................................
4. The general returned home with his family.	....................................
5. As we approached our destination, we became rather emotional.	....................................
More practice (answers on the website) 6. When the actor entered the stage, the audience clapped enthusiastically.	....................................
7. If you promise not to tell anyone, I will let you in on a secret, even though I shouldn’t.	....................................
8. We are not going to the beach until it stops raining.	....................................
9. Unless you stop complaining, we are turning right around.	....................................
10. He likes foreign movies a lot.	....................................
Test yourself 48.5

For each sentence below, indicate if it is a simple sentence, a compound sentence, or a complex
sentence. Be sure to determine the kind of conjunction (coordinating or subordinating) in order to
help you decide.

Sample:We were always polite to one another although we were never close.	complex
Getting started (answers on p. 232) 1. She pursued her goals relentlessly but she didn’t always achieve them.	.....................................................
2. I have made numerous mistakes over the years.	.....................................................
3. I won’t tell you unless you agree to help because I can’t take the risk.	.....................................................

Lesson 48: Complex sentences217
4. Jason and Ilene had to renew their passports before they could
leave the country..............................................................................5. Baby boomers were born before this century..............................................................................More practice (answers on the website)
6. He insisted, but I still did not believe him..............................................................................7. You can watchTV all night long, or you can study for your exam..............................................................................8. While Mr. Kagan was at work, the air conditioning stopped
working at his house..............................................................................9. I have known him since we moved to this town..............................................................................10. Ashley and Brian wanted to shop at that store..............................................................................Complex sentences can have di¡erent kinds of dependent clauses. The ones we’ve
talked about so far are called adverbial clauses because, like adverbs, they typically tell
us more about a verb, adjective, or another adverb. For example, in the sentence,Things
improved after Mr. Eliot arrived, the underlined dependent clause is telling us something
about the time of the action.
In other complex sentences, dependent clauses can be used as noun phrases.Take a look
at the following pair of sentences:
13a. That statement is silly.
13b. What Mark just said is silly.
In sentence 13a, that statement is a noun phrase. In sentence 13b, what Mark just said is a
dependent clause which is functioning as a noun phrase of the main sentence. When a
dependent clause is functioning as a noun phrase, it’s called a noun clause. Here are
some more sentence pairs in which the second sentence of the pair has a dependent clause
(underlined) acting as a noun phrase.

14a. I know the truth.	simple sentence
14b. I know that you’re right.	complex sentence
15a. It remains unknown.	simple sentence
15b. Why they left town remains unknown.	complex sentence

Notice that noun clauses look just like other dependent clauses: they begin with a subordinating conjunction and contain both a subject and a verb phrase. However, when a
sentence has a noun clause, the rest of the sentence cannot always stand alone; it needs
the noun clause to be complete. For example, in sentence 15b, remains unknown is not a
complete sentence.Test yourself 48.6Underline the dependent clause in each of the complex sentences below. It will be either an
adverbial clause or a noun clause.
Sample:Whatever you do is acceptable.U N I T 1 6 : C O M B I N I N G S E N T E N C E S218
Getting started (answers on p. 232)
1. I’ll stay with Jeanette until Peter comes
home.
2. That my candidate will win is
obvious.
3. Although Mrs. Craft was tired, she insisted
on making us dinner.
4. We were quite con¢dent that we had made the
right decision.
5. They want to ¢nd out why the waitress was so
rude to them.More practice (answers on the website)
6. He did not know which highway led to the
Canadian border.
7. The assistant manager knew that she
was not going to be promoted this
time.
8. Wherever we travel we like to visit
museums.
9. I can speak Italian better than you can speak
French.
10. We were tired of waiting, so we left.
We’ve been telling you to look for the subordinating conjunction to help you ¢nd the
dependent clause. But what about these next sentences (with the dependent clauses
underlined)?
16a. I know that you’re right.
16b. I know you’re right.
17a. You believed that the defendant was innocent.
17b. You believed the defendant was innocent.
As you can see, we can delete the subordinating conjunction that in a noun clause
when the dependent clause follows the main clause. However, if the dependent
clause comes before the main clause, the subordinating conjunction that cannot be
deleted:
18a. That her daughter is talented has been obvious for years.
18b. *Her daughter is talented has been obvious for years.
19a. That the defendant was innocent became clear during the trial.
19b. *The defendant was innocent became clear during the trial.Quick tip 48.4In a noun clause, the subordinating conjunction that can be deleted following a main
clause. Example: I think (that) it’s going to rain.So when you don’t see a subordinating conjunction in a sentence, but the sentence has
more than one subject and verb phrase, ask yourself if you can insert that somewhere. If
so, then you’ll know you have a dependent clause.Test yourself 48.7Underline the dependent clauses in each of the sentences below. In some cases, the conjunctionthatwill have been deleted.
Sample: They knew she would escape.Lesson 48: Complex sentences219
Getting started (answers on p. 232)
1. They don’t believe that her partner will keep
his word.
2. Mrs.Webb was sure her pie would win the
baking contest.
3. That Andy is the best in the class doesn’t
surprise me.
4. We heard you were accepted to Georgetown
Law School.
5. It is true that I am going to become a partner
in this ¢rm.More practice (answers on the website)
6. This man does not think you are a good
writer.
7. Jackie always thought that one day she
would be a leading actress.
8. You knew that I would be throwing a
surprise party for you.
9. The landlord assumed that all his tenants
would be paying rent on time.
10. The little girl pretended she was dancing
with Mickey Mouse.Test yourself 48.8Decide if each sentence is simple, compound, or complex. Keep in mind that sometimes the
subordinating conjunction that may have been deleted.
Sample: She told me I wasn’t giving up yet. complex

Getting started (answers on p. 233) 1. My mother changed the subject, but it was too late.	.......................................................
2. He proposed to her when she graduated from college.	.......................................................
3. A man from the sawmill was overseeing the project.	.......................................................
4. I want a piece of apple pie.	.......................................................
5. I had been hoping you could come to the game.	.......................................................
More practice (answers on the website) 6. If you take the kids to the movies, I can get some rest.	.......................................................
7. The president said we should all conserve fuel.	.......................................................
8. You can do the food shopping ¢rst, or you can do your other errands.	.......................................................
9. Justin generally eats his soup with bread and butter.	.......................................................
10. I know the woman in the blue dress.	.......................................................

There’s another very common type of subordinating clause, called a relative clause.
Here are some examples:
20. I’ll tell my husband, who will be home soon.
21. The person who knows her best is Richard.
22. Miss Livingston had her money in the bank that failed.
Since there’s quite a bit to say about relative clauses, we ‘ve given them their own lesson,
which is next.U N I T 1 6 : C O M B I N I N G S E N T E N C E S220
Lesson 49: Sentences with relative clausesA well-known children’s story starts with the line, This is the house that Jack built. It
continues,This is the malt that lay in the house that Jack built.This is the rat that ate the malt that lay in the
house that Jack built.The story continues until it ends with the following sentence:This is the
farmer sowinghis corn, that kept the cock that crowed in the morn, that waked the priest all shaven
and shorn, that married the man all tattered and torn, that kissed the maiden all forlorn, that
milked the cow with the crumpled horn, that tossed the dog, that worried the cat, that killed the rat,
that ate the malt that lay in the house that Jack built.
(www.amherst.edu/ rjyanco94/literature/mothergoose/rhymes/
thisisthehousethatjackbuilt.html, retrieved November 9, 2008.)
This story gives us a good demonstration of complex sentences with relative clauses, which
are a kind of dependent clause (see Lesson 48). For example, in the sentenceThis is the house
that Jack built, the main clause isThis is the house, and the dependent, relative clause is that
Jack built.The relative clause acts as an adjective: it modi¢es the noun phrase the house, telling us more about it.This is why relative clauses are also referred to as adjective clauses.Quick tip 49.1A relative clause (adjective clause) is a kind of dependent clause; it provides additional
information about a noun phrase in the main clause. Example (relative clause underlined):I brought the cookies that are on the plate.In each sentence below, the relative clause is underlined, and the noun phrase which
the relative clause is modifying is in bold.The main clause can stand on its own as a sentence without the relative clause; the relative clause just provides additional information about the noun phrase it’s modifying and cannot stand alone. Like other clauses, a
relative clause has its own subject and verb phrase.
1. She transferred the plate to the tray that she just washed.
2. Blanche thought about the manwho was living in Italy at the time.
3. He called the company that usually supplies the pipes.Test yourself 49.1Underline the relative clause in each of the sentences below.
Sample: Mr.Sanders was wearing a suit that he bought in Italy.Getting started (answers on p. 233)
1. He paid no attention to the newspaper which
was next to him.
2. The police arrested the man whom they had
been looking for.
3. Mrs. Peterson was reaching for the phone
that was nearest her chair.
4. He might recognize the woman who is
hosting the show.
5. Cli¡ bought a present that was just perfect
for his girlfriend.221
More practice (answers on the website)
6. I am renting an apartment that has two
bedrooms.
7. She met someone whose daughter
had graduated from Duke University.
8. Are you going to eat the desert that I baked
especially for you?
9. He came to the party with a friend whom
I haven’t seen in ages.
10. You should pay for your vacation
with the money that I gave you.
The relative clause doesn’t necessarily follow the main sentence (clause); it can also be
within the main sentence. In the following sentences, the relative clause is underlined
and the main sentence (clause) is in bold. In sentences 4 and 5, the relative clause follows
the main clause; in sentences 6 and 7, it’s inside the main clause.
4. I’ve brought the horse which has been specially trained.
5. We tipped the waiter who had served us so well.
6. The man who was living in Italy at the time knew all the facts.
7. The company that usually supplies the pipes has gone out of business.
Again, if the relative clause (the underlined part) is removed, the main clause can still
stand on its own as a sentence.Test yourself 49.2Underline the relative clause in each of the sentences below.The relative clause may be anywhere
in the sentence.
Sample: Abusiness that manufactures engines can be di⁄cult to run.Getting started (answers on p. 233)
1. She gave him a smile that lit up her face.
2. The professor who gives easy tests is on
sabbatical this semester.
3. The approaches which are most likely to
succeed are too complicated.
4. The hotel which is near the shore doesn’t
open until April.
5. Are you satis¢ed with the computer that
your parents bought for you?More practice (answers on the website)
6. The players who just entered the stadium
are wearing blue jerseys.
7. Those strawberries that you brought are
absolutely delicious.
8. I will vote for the candidate whose values
are close to mine.
9. Thegymthatshebelongstoisonlyamileaway.
10. He is still madly in love with the woman
whom he married 15 years ago.
We’ve seen (in Lesson 48) that other dependent clauses are linked to the rest of the sentence by subordinating conjunctions. The same is true of relative clauses. Those subordinating conjunctions which link relative clauses to the rest of the sentence are called
relative pronouns, and youmay remember that we talked about themin Lesson 26.The relative pronoun which introduces the relative clause is underlined in the sentences below:U N I T 1 6 : C O M B I N I N G S E N T E N C E S222
8. I just read a book which had a really exciting ending.
9. The soldier whom I’m writing to recently came home on leave.
10. She signed a deal with the publishing company that gave her the best o¡er.
Note that words that are relative pronouns can also be used in other ways. For example,who can be used as a relative pronoun, but it can also be used as a question word, as in the
sentence, Who married her?Quick tip 49.2Relative clauses begin with one of the relative pronouns: that, which, who, whom, whose.Test yourself 49.3Each of the sentences below contains a relative clause. Underline the relative pronoun that begins
the relative clause.
Sample:The student whom I spoke to was confused.Getting started (answers on p. 233)
1. The hotel chain that Greg founded has since
gone out of business.
2. He phoned the woman who was writing the
article.
3. Jill resents the man whose father won the
lottery.
4. The highway which I take to work needs
repair.
5. TheTVshow that she likes best is on
Sunday nights.More practice (answers on the website)
6. The DVD player which you bought was way
too expensive.
7. I would like to meet the woman who you
raved about.
8. Students whose names are not on the class
roster should see me after class.
9. We are going to patronize the pharmacy
which has just opened up.
10. I don’t read all the magazines that
I subscribe to.
Just as a sentence can have more than one dependent clause, it can have more than
one relative clause. We saw this earlier, in the sentences about Jack, and see it here
as well:
11. Pablo married the woman whose sister lived in a house which was next door to
the one that I bought from the man who had ¢rst built it.
Even though this sentence is very long and contains four relative clauses, it is still perfectly grammatical.Test yourself 49.4Underline the relative clauses in each of the sentences below. A sentence may have more than one
relative clause.
Sample: The man whom he had rescued turned out to be the criminal whom the police were
looking for.Lesson 49: Sentences with relative clauses223
Getting started (answers on p. 233)
1. She turned on the broadcast which dealt with
the scandal that had recently been in the
news.
2. Buck stood behind the counter which
dominated his small restaurant.
3. The photographer who took the picture
which appeared in the paper that was most
widely read won a Pulitzer Prize.
4. I can’t ¢nd the message that you sent me.
5. No one who breaks the law should get
away with it.More practice (answers on the website)
6. The cruise that we booked 6 months ago
through the agent whom you recommended
is leaving next week.
7. The furnace that heats the house which we
purchased with the cash that we won in the
lottery that we played 5 years ago needs to
be replaced.
8. Did you ever compute the number of days
that you have spent on the novel that you are
writing?
9. Friends who keeps their word are the kinds
of friends that I like.
10. The parking garage which is on the top £oor
of the building that is on the corner of the
intersection is almost always full.
You may be wondering why relative pronouns are called pronouns.You know that pronouns replace noun phrases in a sentence. As we discussed in Lesson 26, all of the relative
pronouns except whose do the same thing.Quick tip 49.3A relative pronoun connects the relative clause to the rest of the sentence. All of the
relative pronouns (except whose) also replace a noun phrase in the relative clause.
(Whose replaces a determiner.)Let’s review how Quick tip 49.3 works in the following sentence, whose relative clause is
underlined:
12. Blanche thought about the manwho was living in Italy.
What noun phrase is the relative pronoun who replacing? The who refers to the noun
phrase the man.
Here’s another example:
13. He called the company that usually supplied the pipes.
In this case, what does the relative pronoun that replace? It replaces the noun phrase the
company.Test yourself 49.5For each sentence below, underline the relative clause and put a squiggly line under the main clause.
Sample: Natalie usually wears clothes that look £attering on her.U N I T 1 6 : C O M B I N I N G S E N T E N C E S224
Getting started (answers on p. 233)
1. I am meeting Mr. Arnold at the museum that
he supports.
2. The label which contains the warning is not
very clear.
3. The robber opened the case which contained
the most cash.
4. The policy that the president is
implementing should be successful.
5. I contacted the young man whose wallet
I found on the subway.More practice (answers on the website)
6. Shirley is not satis¢ed with the interest that
she is getting in her bank account.
7. Economists who can predict the duration of
recessions are rare.
8. Doctors who overcharge patients should be
prosecuted.
9. I was impressed with the author who gave a
lecture at the library yesterday.
10. The salesman who called was very
persuasive.Test yourself 49.6Underline the dependent clause in each of the sentences below. It will either be a relative clause, a
noun clause, or an adverbial clause.
Sample:The historian visited most of the sites that he wrote about.Getting started (answers on p. 234)
1. The architect’s design includes a window
that faces the courtyard.
2. She understood what you were trying to say.
3. If you’re hungry, this town has a fantastic
Greek restaurant.
4. It is obvious that we have to reevaluate our
plan.
5. The o¡er that I have given you is a
fair one.More practice (answers on the website)
6. Her cousins need to know whether she’ll be
going to Boston this weekend.
7. Even if you don’t feel good, you should
de¢nitely attend the convention.
8. The stranger who said hello to us wore
elegant clothes.
9. The salesman can’t remember what he
promised his customer.
10. They watchedTVwhen they got home.
Let’s take a look at the following sentence:
14. The manwhom I interviewed was not very knowledgeable.
As we discussed above, the sentence contains a relative clause, whom I interviewed, which
begins with the relative pronoun whom.Will this sentence still be grammatical if the relative pronoun, whom, is left out?
15. The man I interviewed was not very knowledgeable.
If you think this sentence sounds ¢ne, you’re absolutely right. Here are some more examples:
16a. The permit that the builders applied for was denied.
16b. The permit the builders applied for was denied.
17a. The celebrity who Jack photographed left the theater early.
17b. The celebrityJack photographed left the theater early.
You will notice that when the relative pronoun is omitted, as in sentences 15, 16b,
and 17b, one noun phrase is directly followed by another noun phrase: the man + I inLesson 49: Sentences with relative clauses225
sentence 15, the permit + the builders in sentence 16b, and the celebrity + Jack in sentence 17b. So if you see a sentence that has two noun phrases next to each other, check
to see if the sentence would still be grammatical and mean the same thing if you put a
relative pronoun between the two noun phrases; this will help you identify relative
clauses.Quick tip 49.4A relative pronoun may be omitted before a noun phrase. Example: The movie (that) I saw
was exciting.Test yourself 49.7Underline the relative clause in each of the sentences below. In some cases, the relative pronoun
will have been deleted.
Sample:The waiter set the table he had placed outside the restaurant.Getting started (answers on p. 234)
1. The little square in the town we visited
contained benches.
2. Other famous people will be performing at
the theater that my brother works at.
3. The pilot who £ew the aircraft must have
been well trained.
4. My neighbor owns the horse which won this
race.
5. The guest I invited is sleeping on
the sofa.More practice (answers on the website)
6. We left a nice tip for the waiter who served
our delicious dinner.
7. The tennis racket I bought for you was made
abroad.
8. The author whose book I am reading will go
on a promotional tour.
9. The thing I like best about Jill is her positive
attitude.
10. The woman who is running for mayor of this
city is well known.
When we look at relative clauses more closely, we ¢nd that there are actually two types:restrictive relative clauses and nonrestrictive relative clauses. Compare the following sentences; the relative clauses are underlined.
18. Bridget likes doughnuts that have chocolate frosting.
19. She likes Peter Bolton, who is her son’s piano teacher.
In sentence 18, the relative clause that have chocolate frosting is telling us exactly which
doughnuts Bridget really likes. The clause is telling us that Bridget doesn’t necessarily
like all doughnuts; she speci¢cally likes those that have chocolate frosting. This kind of
relative clause, which limits or restricts the noun phrase it’s modifying, is called arestrictive relative clause.
In contrast, in sentence 19, the relative clause whois her son’s piano teacher is telling us
something about Peter Bolton, but if we omit this relative clause, we still know who
Peter is, although we don’t know the extra information that he is her son’s piano teacher.
This type of relative clause is called a nonrestrictive relative clause. It’s always separated from the main sentence by commas. (You can think of it as being separated from the
main clause by commas because it’s not essential.) When we say a sentence with aU N I T 1 6 : C O M B I N I N G S E N T E N C E S226
nonrestrictive relative clause, we usually pause at the commas separating it from the
main sentence.
Here are some more examples to help clarify the di¡erence between restrictive and
nonrestrictive relative clauses:
20. The employees who were upset came to the meeting.
21. The employees, who were upset, came to the meeting.
What’s the di¡erenceinmeaning between these two sentences?According to sentence 20,
only those employees who were upset came to the meeting. The other employees didn’t
come to the meeting.That is, sentence 20 restricts the employees who came to the meeting
to only those who were upset. Sentence 20 thus contains a restrictive relative clause.
What we know from sentence 21 is that employees came to the meeting. In addition, we
know that those employees were upset. The clause provides additional information
about the employees but doesn’t restrict, or limit, which employees came to the meeting.
There may be other employees who were also upset but who didn’t come to the meeting.
This clause is a nonrestrictive relative clause.
Again, notice that in sentence 21 the relative clause is separated from the main clause
by commas. Sentence 21is also said with pauses where the commas are.
Note that one can always remove a relative clause, of either type, and still end up with a
grammatical sentence. However, if the restrictive relative clause is removed, some of the
information needed to fully identify the noun phrase we’re talking about is missing.Quick tip 49.5A restrictive relative clause limits the noun phrase which it is modifying; a nonrestrictive
relative clause does not. A nonrestrictive relative clause is separated from the main clause
by pauses, and, when written, it is separated from the main clause by commas. Examples:The dogs which were friendly were being trained as Seeing Eye dogs (restrictive). The
dogs, which were friendly, were being trained as Seeing Eye dogs (nonrestrictive).Test yourself 49.8Decide if each relative clause, underlined in the sentences below, is a restrictive or nonrestrictive
relative clause.

Sample:The laundry which had just been folded was on the counter.	restrictive
Getting started (answers on p. 234) 1. Mrs. Smith, who owns the house, was not interested in selling.	...............................................................
2. A huge truck, which someone had painted bright yellow, stood in the driveway.	...............................................................
3. The children who had just come back from the class trip were restless.	...............................................................
4. The maid broke an antique lamp, which was very valuable.	...............................................................
5. The painting I brought home will be perfect for the den.	...............................................................
More practice (answers on the website) 6. The bushes we planted last year are growing nicely.	...............................................................
7. Brianna is mad at John, who o¡ended her family.	...............................................................
8. I am returning your bicycle, which you lent me last week.	..............................................................

Lesson 49: Sentences with relative clauses227
9. The students who made the presentation did a great job.............................................................................10. This road, which we have traveled many times, is treacherous.............................................................................Test yourself 49.9Underline the relative clause in each of the sentences below. Then decide if it is restrictive or
nonrestrictive.

Sample: Rome, which is a lovely city, was her ¢rst destination.	nonrestrictive
Getting started (answers on p. 234) 1. The Frenchman who is from Lyons completed the project.	................................................
2. The general, who knew nothing about the matter, nonetheless voiced his opinion.	................................................
3. A small disturbance, which was getting louder and louder, ¢nally attracted our attention.	................................................
4. Jeremy, who was blushing profusely, askedTatiana for some help.	................................................
5. Jim wasn’t the person she wanted to hire.	................................................
More practice (answers on the website) 6. The young lady, whose hobby was stamp collecting, was charming.	.......................... ...................
7. The man who is having a drink at the bar looks familiar.	................................................
8. The taxi I called took me to the airport.	................................................
9. Her report, which she prepared carefully, was well received.	................................................

10. The children, who are playing with their new toys, are unusually quiet............................ ...................To further enhance your understandingA relative clause can modify any noun phrase in a sentence, whether that noun phrase is
functioning as a subject, direct object, indirect object, or object of a preposition. For
example, in sentence 25, the relative clause refers to the direct object of the main clause:
25. My sister likes the house which has a large swimming pool.
And in sentence 26, the relative clause refers to the indirect object of the main clause:
26. My sister sold the house to a family that has three children.To enhance your understandingProper names are not modified by restrictive relative clauses. Here is an example:
22a. George, who is an architect, is a good friend of mine. (nonrestrictive)
22b. *George who is an architect is a good friend of mine. (restrictive)
Since the identity of a proper noun is already well defined, it makes sense that restrictive
relative clauses do not modify proper nouns.
Notice that if we want to be very specific about a proper name, to differentiate it from
others with the same name, then using a restrictive relative clause is entirely appropriate:
23. The George who is an architect is a good friend of mine. (restrictive)
24. The France that I am familiar with is a very lovely country. (restrictive)
U N I T 1 6 : C O M B I N I N G S E N T E N C E S228
Lesson 50: Compound-complex sentencesYou know (from Lesson 47) that sentence 1is a compound sentence:
1. Martha left me a note but I can’t ¢nd it.
You also know (from Lesson 48) that sentence 2 is a complex sentence:
2. She answered him impatiently when he questioned her credentials.
Like all compound sentences, sentence 1 contains at least two complete sentences
joined by a coordinating conjunction, in this case but. And like all complex sentences,
sentence 2 contains a main clause with at least one dependent clause; the dependent
clause begins with a subordinating conjunction, in this case when.
But what about this next sentence?
3. I’ll leave a message for the plumber but I’m not sure that he’ll get it.
You won’t be surprised to learn that sentences such as sentence 3, which are both compound (two clauses connected with but) and complex (two clauses connected with that),
are called compound-complex sentences. These are sentences that contain at least two
main clauses, and at least one of the main clauses has at least one dependent clause.Quick tip 50.1A compound-complex sentence is a combination of a compound and a complex sentence: it
has at least two main clauses and at least one dependent clause. Example: His friends were
always there for William, and he appreciated the help that they often gave him.Here are some more examples of compound-complex sentences, with the complete sentences in bold and the dependent clauses underlined:
4. While the house looked nice from the outside, the £oors were sagging andthe walls were crumbling.
5. The woman who lives next door is very friendly but I forgot her name.
6. I thanked him for his e¡orts but he insisted that he hadn’t minded.
7. If we don’t hurry, we’ll have to see a di¡erent movie, or we’ll have to come
back later.

Test yourself 50.1
Decide if each sentence below is a complex or compound-complex sentence. Sample: He realized that they had been investigating his private life.	complex
Getting started (answers on p. 234) 1. They are walking quickly down the hall which connects their lab to the main o⁄ce.	..............................................
2. The castle looked beautiful in the sunlight, and it dominated the countryside which was around it.	..............................................

3. The Mercer family has gone on the vacation which they’ve been planning
for years.................................................229
4. He was angry at his friend, but he decided that he wasn’t going to tell him....................................................5. We don’t know whether we’ll succeed, but it’s important that we try....................................................More practice (answers on the website)
6. Since you moved, a lot of things have changed....................................................7. Mr. Burns’s son can’t buy a house until he ¢nishes medical school, but

he is already saving for it.	...................................................
8. I am not going to sign the contract until my lawyer looks it over.	...................................................
9. We will go to the concert, but I am warning you that we will have to wait on line for tickets.	...................................................
10. The mechanic said that we should check our tire pressure every week.	...................................................
Test yourself 50.2

Decide if each sentence below is a simple, compound, complex or compound-complex sentence.
Sample: Her older son, whose name was Edward, moved into the city ¢rst. complex

Getting started (answers on p. 234) 1. If you travel to NewYork, you should de¢nitely visit Times Square.	..........................................................
2. He dried his face with a towel.	..........................................................
3. I like the view from my apartment, but it can get very noisy outside.	..........................................................
4. Once you arrive in Europe, you should call me.	..........................................................
5. It is obvious to me that you have to limit your spending, or you’ll have to look for a second job.	...............................................................
More practice (answers on the website) 6. He is sleeping soundly, but he needs to get up soon.	..........................................................
7. They buy a newspaper almost every morning.	..........................................................
8. The game started before I got there.	..........................................................
9. Valerie will be happy when she gets the news.	..........................................................
10. I invited Carrie over and she joined me for a dinner which was delicious.	.............................................................

U N I T 1 6 : C O M B I N I N G S E N T E N C E S230
Answer keys: Test yourself, Getting startedquestions – Unit 16Test yourself 46.11. The committee presented its ideas to congress.
2. I stayed in bed that day.
3. Nobody moved.
4. My favorite hotel is on Park Avenue.
5. I overslept today.

Test yourself 46.2
1. I have never eaten caviar.	simple sentence
2. The department stores are having a sale this weekend.	simple sentence
3. Expensive antique jewelry.	phrase
4. Our home on the ranch.	phrase
5. Fresh-cut £owers on the table.	phrase
Test yourself 47.1

1. Andre pulled the car into the street, and Beth began reading the directions.
2. She enjoyed shopping for food, but she especially enjoyed cooking.
3. I can do this now, or I can do it later.
4. Dan does not feel well, yet he wants to go in to work.
5. We missed our £ight, so we have to wait around the airport for the next available one.

Test yourself 47.2
1. He can’t blame her for the problem.	simple
2. Beth left the library, and she headed straight home.	compound
3. He was watching her, but she was pretending not to notice.	compound
4. We like him a lot.	simple
5. The coach wants to win, but he will be happy with a tie.	compound
Test yourself 47.3

1. Vicki was always looking at herself in the mirror, but Mary Ann was extremely self-con¢dent,
and she never gave herself a second glance. 3
2. Her father was devoted to her. 1
3. Our ¢rm’s CEO will be £ying to Chicago next week, but he’ll be returning the same day. 2
4. The lady in the elegant blue dress entered the well-lit room with her perky little dog in her arms. 1
5. Our boat was hit with strong winds, and we had to return to our cabins. 2Test yourself 47.41. It was a scene of joy but one thing spoiled the moment. compound
2. The boxer fell to his knees but he managed to get back up. compound231
3. The designer and his assistants quickly brought order to the chaos. simple
4. Matt was driving to NewYork with his kids and his neighbor’s son. simple
5. I like to drink co¡ee or tea after dinner. simpleTest yourself 48.11. His father is returning to London because the furniture is arriving.
2. Selma smiled at him although she had never felt less like smiling.
3. He felt a great a¡ection for his guardian until he discovered the truth.
4. I am going to solve this crossword puzzle even if it takes me all day.
5. James accepted the job before he checked with his wife.Test yourself 48.21. When Elizabeth spoke, Ben listened attentively.
2. Before you blame him, think about your own responsibility.
3. You should pay for automobile insurance even if your car is old.
4. Unless the train arrives soon, we’ll miss our appointment.
5. The district attorney won’t rest till he ¢nds the perpetrator.Test yourself 48.31. Even though the village supported the emperor, it still paid numerous taxes.
2. I like to sit on the balcony when the weather is nice.
3. George did it because he recognized the woman.
4. Once I have made up my mind, I usually do not change it.
5. Someone rang the doorbell while we were having lunch.Test yourself 48.41. The two horses thrived on the ranch because they received excellent care. complex
2. Another little girl will be arriving at the school before noon today. simple
3. The old housekeeper welcomed her warmly when her mother was present. complex
4. The general returned home with his family. simple
5. As we approached our destination, we became rather emotional. complexTest yourself 48.51. She pursued her goals relentlessly but she didn’t always achieve them. compound
2. I have made numerous mistakes over the years. simple
3. I won’t tell you unless you agree to help because I can’t take the risk. complex
4. Jason and Ilene had to renew their passports before they could leave the country. complex
5. Baby boomers were born before this century. simpleTest yourself 48.61. I’ll stay with Jeanette until Peter comes home.
2. That my candidate will win is obvious.
3. Although Mrs. Craft was tired, she insisted on making us dinner.
4. We were quite con¢dent that we had made the right decision.
5. They want to ¢nd out why the waitress was so rude to them.Test yourself 48.71. They don’t believe that her partner will keep his word.
2. Mrs.Webb was sure her pie would win the baking contest.U N I T 1 6 : C O M B I N I N G S E N T E N C E S232
3. That Andy is the best in the class doesn’t surprise me.
4. We heard you were accepted to Georgetown Law School.
5. It is true that I am going to become a partner in this ¢rm.

Test yourself 48.8
1. My mother changed the subject, but it was too late.	compound
2. He proposed to her when she graduated from college.	complex
3. A man from the sawmill was overseeing the project.	simple
4. I want a piece of apple pie.	simple
5. I had been hoping you could come to the game.	complex
Test yourself 49.1

1. He paid no attention to the newspaper which was next to him.
2. The police arrested the man whom they had been looking for.
3. Mrs. Peterson was reaching for the phone that was nearest her chair.
4. He might recognize the woman who is hosting the show.
5. Cli¡ bought a present that was just perfect for his girlfriend.Test yourself 49.21. She gave him a smile that lit up her face.
2. The professor who gives easy tests is on sabbatical this semester.
3. The approaches which are most likely to succeed are too complicated.
4. The hotel which is near the shore doesn’t open until April.
5. Are you satis¢ed with the computer that your parents bought for you?Test yourself 49.31. The hotel chain that Greg founded has since gone out of business.
2. He phoned the woman who was writing the article.
3. Jill resents the man whose father won the lottery.
4. The highway which I take to work needs repair.
5. TheTVshow that she likes best is on Sunday nights.Test yourself 49.41. She turned on the broadcast which dealt with the scandal that had recently been in the
news.
2. Buck stood behind the counter which dominated his small restaurant.
3. The photographer who took the picture which appeared in the paper that was most widely read
won a Pulitzer Prize.
4. I can’t ¢nd the message that you sent me.
5. No one who breaks the law should get away with it.Test yourself 49.51. I am meeting Mr. Arnold at the museum that he supports.
2. The label which contains the warning is not very clear.
3. The robber opened the case which contained the most cash.
4. The policy that the president is implementing should be successful.
5. I contacted the young man whose wallet I found on the subway.Answer keys: Unit 16233
Test yourself 49.61. The architect’s design includes a window that faces the courtyard.
2. She understood what you were trying to say.
3. If you’re hungry, this town has a fantastic Greek restaurant.
4. It is obvious that we have to reevaluate our plan.
5. The o¡er that I have given you is a fair one.Test yourself 49.71. The little square in the town we visited contained benches.
2. Other famous people will be performing at the theater that my brother works at.
3. The pilot who £ew the aircraft must have been well trained.
4. My neighbor owns the horse which won this race.
5. The guest I invited is sleeping on the sofa.Test yourself 49.81. Mrs. Smith, who owns the house, was not interested in selling. nonrestrictive
2. A huge truck, which someone had painted bright yellow, stood in the driveway. nonrestrictive
3. The children who had just come back from the class trip were restless. restrictive
4. The maid broke an antique lamp, which was very valuable. nonrestrictive
5. The painting I brought home will be perfect for the den. restrictive

Test yourself 49.9
1. The Frenchman who is from Lyons completed the project.	restrictive
2. The general, who knew nothing about the matter, nonetheless voiced his opinion.	nonrestrictive
3. A small disturbance, which was getting louder and louder, ¢nally attracted our attention.	nonrestrictive
4. Jeremy, who was blushing profusely, askedTatiana for some help.	nonrestrictive
5. Jim wasn’t the person she wanted to hire.	restrictive
Test yourself 50.1
1. They are walking quickly down the hall which connects their lab to the main o⁄ce.	complex

2. The castle looked beautiful in the sunlight, and it dominated the countryside which was
around it. compound-complex
3. The Mercer family has gone on the vacation which they’ve been planning for years. complex
4. He was angry at his friend, but he decided that he wasn’t going to tell him. compound-complex
5. We don’t know whether we’ll succeed, but it’s important that we try. compound-complexTest yourself 50.21. If you travel to NewYork, you should de¢nitely visit Times Square. complex
2. He dried his face with a towel. simple
3. I like the view from my apartment, but it can get very noisy outside. compound
4. Once you arrive in Europe, you should call me. complex
5. It is obvious to me that you have to limit your spending, or you’ll have to look for a second
job. compound-complex☞ FOR A REVIEW EXERCISE OF THIS UNIT, SEE THE WEBSITE.U N I T 1 6 : C O M B I N I N G S E N T E N C E S234
UNIT 17: RELATED SENTENCESLesson 51: Looking at related sentencesOne interesting characteristic of language is that sentences can be related, in a consistent
way, to other sentences.What do we mean by this? Let’s start by looking at some related
sentences which we’ve seen before.
1a. She looked up the answer.
1b. She looked the answer up.
2a. We will just drop o¡ the ¢les.
2b. We will just drop the ¢les o¡.
3a. The professor pointed out the correct answer.
3b. The professor pointed the correct answer out.
You can see that one member of each pair is related to the other in a systematic way: the
verb and its particle (both underlined) can either be next to each other or the particle can
be on the other side of the next noun phrase. (See Lesson 11.) The important point here is
that we can’t change the structure of a sentence in any random way. For example, we can’t
say *She up looked the answer.
Let’s look at other examples of related sentences:
4a. Mary gave the information to Robert.
4b. Mary gave Robert the information.
5a. She told the truth to her granddaughter.
5b. She told her granddaughter the truth.
6a. They bought a car for their teenage daughter.
6b. They bought their teenage daughter a car.
Once again, you can see that these indirect object pairs are related to each other in a systematic way. (SeeLesson 40.) And again, we can’t just randomly change them; for example,
we can’t say, *Mary Robert the information gave.
Here’s one more example of related sentences:
7a. I know that you’re right.
7b. I know you’re right.
8a. You believed that the defendant was innocent.
8b. You believed the defendant was innocent.
9a. The residents of the village feel that the new highway is important.
9b. The residents of the village feel the new highway is important.
Here, while the word that can be deleted (see Lesson 48) , we can’t delete just anything. For
example, we can’t say *I that you’re right.Test yourself 51.1Change each sentence below into its related‘‘partner,’’ using the examples above as a guide.
Sample: His editor put down the manuscript. His editor put the manuscript down.235
Getting started (answers on p. 250)
1. They brought their concerns to the clergyman.............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................2. I have an idea you’ll like this movie.............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................3. You should hand your ticket to the £ight attendant.............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................4. By noon, Jackie had turned in her assignment.............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................5. I ordered you your favorite book.............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................More practice (answers on the website)
6. She knows this will disappoint her mother............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................7. Please put your pens down!..........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................8. He promised his friend a good time...........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................9. The accountant ¢gured that he would spend about three hours with his client...........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................10. They gave money to their local chapter............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................So far, the related sentence pairs we’ve looked at have the same meaning. For example,She looked up the answer and She looked the answer up mean exactly the same thing. But
sometimes sentences are related to each other in a consistent way, even though their
meanings are not the same. For example, here’s a statement:
10a. Amanda is working today.
Can you turn it into a yes/no question (Lesson 45)? The related yes/no question is:
10b. Is Amanda working today?
No native speaker of English would make the yes/no question something like, *Working
Amanda today is. That’s because there’s a systematic relationship between statements
and yes/no questions, even though they don’t have the same meaning.
Try another one:
11a. That boy has eaten an enormous breakfast.
The related yes/no question is:
11b. Has that boy eaten an enormous breakfast?U N I T 1 7 : R E L A T E D S E N T E N C E S236
Here are some more examples:
12a. Hank was laughing.
12b. Was Hank laughing?
13a. That artist had chosen to represent animals in his drawings.
13b. Had that artist chosen to represent animals in his drawings?
14a. You can see the old hotel near the railroad station.
14b. Can you see the old hotel near the railroad station?
Another example of related sentences can be seen when we look at statements and tag
questions (Lesson 45).
For example, here’s a statement:
15a. Molly should do that.
Can you turn it into a tag question (Lesson 45)? The related tag question is:
15b. Molly should do that, shouldn’t she?
No native speaker of English would respond with the tag question, *Mary should do that,
can’t they? That’s because, again, there’s a systematic relationship between statements
and tag questions, even though they don’t have the same meaning.
Try another one:
16a. The students are waiting to have lunch.
The related tag question is:
16b. The students are waiting to have lunch, aren’t they?
Here are some more examples:
17a. He had mailed the letter yesterday.
17b. He had mailed the letter yesterday, hadn’t he?
18a. Mr. Peters was wearing a hat with a wide brim.
18b. Mr. Peters was wearing a hat with a wide brim, wasn’t he?
19a. Rebecca will wait for her.
19b. Rebecca will wait for her, won’t she?
See Lesson 53 for further discussion of yes/no questions and tag questions.
So far, we’ve been looking at sentence types that we’ve already come across in other lessons. However, there are many more sentences in English that are related. In the next
two lessons, we’ll take a closer look at two sets of related sentences that we have not discussed before.Lesson 51: Looking at related sentences237
Lesson 52: Active and passive sentencesSo far in this book we’ve seen lots of sentences with the following pattern:
1a. The witch kidnaped Esmeralda.
In this sentence, the witch is the subject (the doer of the action); kidnaped is an action
verb, and Esmeralda is the direct object (the receiver of the action). (See Lessons 38 and
39.) This word order ^ subject ¢rst, then verb, then direct object ^ is typical of English sentences. Sentences like this, with the subject before its verb, are called active sentences(or are said to be in the active voice).Quick tip 52.1Sentences with the subject before the verb are called active sentences. Example: Charley
repaired this computer.What do you notice about this next sentence?
1b. Esmeralda was kidnaped by the witch.
It has basically the same meaning as sentence1a, but with a di¡erent structure.We can see
that the noun phrase the witch is still the subject; however, it no longer occurs before the
verb. It occurs after the verb and following the word by. The direct object noun phrase,Esmeralda, is now before the verb. Sentences with this pattern are called passive sentences (or are said to be in the passive voice).Quick tip 52.2Sentences which do not have the subject before the verb are called passive sentences.
Example: This computer was repaired by Charley.Here are some more examples of active and passive sentence pairs:
2a. My friend mentioned his excellent reputation. (active)
2b. His excellent reputation was mentioned by my friend. (passive)
3a. Nellie sent the Browns a present. (active)
3b. The Browns were sent a present by Nellie. (passive)
4a. The bird ate the worm. (active)
4b. The worm was eaten by the bird. (passive)Test yourself 52.1Decide if each sentence is active or passive.To help you decide, see if the subject (doer of the action)
is before or after the verb.

Sample: The story was told by a great writer.	passive
Getting started (answers on p. 250) 1. The landscaper was hired by her neighbor.	.................................................................................................
2. Tim chose the pastries.	.................................................................................................

238
3. Christine had driven about thirty or forty miles that day.........................................................................................4. Little Suzie’s picture was taken by her grandmother.........................................................................................5. We are cooking something for lunch.........................................................................................More practice (answers on the website)
6. This investor made a lot of money.........................................................................................7. He was appointed by the mayor.........................................................................................8. The votes were counted by the election commission.........................................................................................9. The soprano is singing a famous aria.........................................................................................10. My credit card company has responded to my inquiry.........................................................................................In order for an active sentence to have a related passive sentence, it must have a direct
object. Unlike the sentences we have looked at so far in this lesson, the following sentences do not have a direct object; therefore they don’t have related passive sentences.
5. The train arrived late.
6. We are traveling to Mexico.
7. Harry studied.
Active and passive sentences are related to each other in a systematic way. Let’s look
more closely at this relationship by examining sentences 8a and 8b.
8a. The policeman saw the criminals. (active)
8b. The criminals were seen by the policeman. (passive)
We will see that there are ¢ve ways in which passive sentences like 8b di¡er from active
sentences like 8a.We’ll now discuss each of the characteristics of passive sentences.
First, as we mentioned in Quick tip 52.2, the subject (doer of the action) follows the verb:
8b. The criminals were seen by the policeman.
Second, the word by precedes the subject:
8b. The criminals were seen by the policeman.
Third, the noun phrase that follows the verb in the active sentence occurs before the
verb in the passive sentence:
8b. The criminals were seen by the policeman.
Fourth, passive sentences have a form of be (am, is, are, was, were, be, being) before the
verb:
8b. The criminals were seen by the policeman.
We talked about auxiliary, or helping, verbs in Lessons 31^36; the passive be is also a kind
of helping verb.
And ¢fth, the main verb following the passive be is in a special form:
8b. The criminals were seen by the policeman.
You may recognize this special form of the verb as the past participle form of the verb, the
same form of the verb that follows the helping verb have. (See Lesson 33.) That is, just as
each of the other helping verbs has an e¡ect on the verb following it (see Lesson 36), the
passive be also has an e¡ect on the verb following it: the verb must be in its past participle
form.
Use the following exercises to help you focus in on the di¡erences between active and
passive sentences.Lesson 52: Active and passive sentences239
Test yourself 52.2In the passive sentences below, underline the passive be helping verb and put a squiggly line under
the past participle form of the verb that follows it.
Sample: Roller-coasters are designed by that company.Getting started (answers on p. 250)
1. Amazing results are produced by that
approach.
2. Marjorie Kelly was given ¢rst prize by the
judges.
3. Those words were spoken byAbraham
Lincoln.
4. This actor’s suit was designed byArmani.
5. One hundred new airplanes were ordered by
Singapore Airlines.More practice (answers on the website)
6. The rebels were attacked by government
soldiers.
7. Columbia Pictures was bought by Sony.
8. A quick deal was struck by the negotiating
team.
9. Gandhi is admired by people all over the
world.
10. TheWall Street Journal is read by many
company executives.Test yourself 52.3Convert each active sentence below to its related passive sentence.
Sample: The principal gave my class the award. My class was given the award by the principal.Getting started (answers on p. 250)
1. The tenant ¢led the complaint............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................2. The advertising agency presents many ideas............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................3. The politicians analyze the questionnaires............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................4. Flood damaged their house............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................5. My colleagues complimented me............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................More practice (answers on the website)
6. This law ¢rm hired Joan’s daughter............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................7. Charity helps the needy............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................8. Some travelers buy £ight insurance............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................U N I T 1 7 : R E L A T E D S E N T E N C E S240
9. Hens produce eggs............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................10. My grandfather built that house............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................Test yourself 52.4Convert each passive sentence below to its related active sentence.
Sample: The message was read by the old man. The old man read the message.Getting started (answers on p. 250)
1. Graham is touched by her remarks............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................2. The tower was built by a well-known architect............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................3. The silence is broken by the alarm bell............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................4. Mexico was conquered by Cortez............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................5. Chinese is spoken by more than a billion people............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................More practice (answers on the website)
6. The sofa is delivered on time by the furniture store............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................7. My ¢nger was stuck by a pin............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................8. TheTonyAwards were broadcast by CBS............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................9. This statue was sculpted by Bernini............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................10. iPod was introduced byApple Computer............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................We’ve said that passive sentences contain the word by. Let’s compare by in these next
two sentences:
9. The two bags were lost by Dina.
10. She lives by the seashore.Lesson 52: Active and passive sentences241
Although both bys are prepositions, their functions are not the same. In sentence 9, byis in a passive sentence, letting us know that the doer of the action (in this case, Dina) is
following. But in sentence 10, the seashore is not doing anything; rather, by is telling us
about location.Test yourself 52.5Each of the sentences below contains the word by. Decide if it is being used as a marker of the
passive or to indicate location.

Sample:There were too many cars parked by the school.	location
Getting started (answers on p. 250) 1. The trooper is pleased by the strategy.	......................................................................
2. The building by the bank is new.	......................................................................
3. He was confused by that new information.	......................................................................
4. This afternoon we rested by the pond.	......................................................................
5. The rally was attended by college students.	......................................................................
More practice (answers on the website) 6. They don’t want to buy the house by the highway.	......................................................................
7. The lost puppy was found by its owner.	......................................................................
8. The newlyweds were married by their hometown priest.	......................................................................
9. The case is tried by a newly elected judge.	......................................................................
10. She was reading by the ¢replace.	......................................................................

As we mentioned, passive be (in all its forms) is a kind of helping verb, occurring right
before the main verb. In a sentence that has other helping verbs as well, the passive be is
always the last one.You can see that in the following sentences, where the form of the passive be is underlined and the other helping verbs are in bold:
11. The letter will be answered by McCarthy.
12. The letterhas been answered by McCarthy.
13. The letter is being answered by McCarthy.
14. The letter should have been answered by McCarthy.Quick tip 52.3The passive be helping verb is always placed after all the other helping verbs, right before
the main verb. Example: The table has been set by the waitress.Test yourself 52.6Underline the form of the passive be helping verb in the passive sentences below. Remember that it
will always be the last helping verb in a passive sentence.U N I T 1 7 : R E L A T E D S E N T E N C E S242
Sample:They could have been seen by the reporters.Getting started (answers on p. 251)
1. My o⁄ce is being redecorated by two
newcomers to the ¢eld.
2. The stop had been planned by the tour guide.
3. Her house might have been damaged by the
storm.
4. This book should be read by curious
students.
5. The long awaited picture will be unveiled by
the painter next Sunday.More practice (answers on the website)
6. The trash was being collected by the
sanitation department.
7. You might be pleased by his generosity.
8. The Finnish runner was being overtaken by
the runner from Kenya.
9. That business should have been shut down
by the authorities.
10. Joseph’s car must be repaired by the
dealership.Test yourself 52.7Each of the sentences below is an active sentence with one or more helping verbs. Convert each
active sentence below to its related passive sentence.
Sample: Matt should read this newspaper. This newspaper should be read by Matt.Getting started (answers on p. 251)
1. The tenants have ¢led the complaint.............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................2. The advertising agency is presenting the ideas.............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................3. The politicians have analyzed the questionnaires.............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................4. The author should have given a more interesting speech.............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................5. I might have forgotten the whole thing.............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................More practice (answers on the website)
6. The hotel management may be building another wing.............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................7. Someone must have noticed this.............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................8. A live band will entertain the wedding guests.............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................Lesson 52: Active and passive sentences243
9. Bad weather has delayed us.............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................10. Careless campers can start forest ¢res.............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................The following sentences are also passive sentences, but they’re di¡erent from the ones
we’ve talked about so far.
15. The bank was robbed.
16. A landscaper was hired at last.
In these passive sentences, the by and the subject are missing. That is, instead of sayingThe bank was robbed by someone, we have the option of simply saying The bank was
robbed, if we don’t feel it’s necessary to say by whom.This kind of passive sentence, where
the subject noun phrase is missing, is called a truncated passive. Here are some more
examples:
17. My dinner was prepared quickly.
18. That proposal has already been discussed.Quick tip 52.4A truncated passive is a passive sentence without the by and subject noun phrase. Example:The proposal was discussed.Test yourself 52.8Each of the sentences below is a passive sentence. Decide if it is a full passive or a truncated passive.
Look for the by + noun phrase to help you decide.

Sample:The game was lost by the team.	full passive
Getting started (answers on p. 251) 1. The stories of his wealth have been exaggerated by others.	.............................................................................
2. That bestseller was written by Tony Martin.	.............................................................................
3. The bridge has been repaired.	.............................................................................
4. The store is being watched.	.............................................................................
5. We should have been warned by the contractor.	.............................................................................
More practice (answers on the website) 6. This watch was given to me by my uncle.	.............................................................................
7. Another pyramid has been unearthed.	.............................................................................
8. My article will be published by a prestigious journal.	.............................................................................
9. I am being paged right now.	.............................................................................
10. Elephants have been hunted illegally for their ivory.	.............................................................................

U N I T 1 7 : R E L A T E D S E N T E N C E S244
Test yourself 52.9Decide if the following sentences are active or passive. Some of the passives are truncated.
Sample:The chef is making a sauce for the pasta. active

Getting started (answers on p. 251) 1. The celebrity was spotted at eight in the morning.	...........................................................
2. Tom is carrying two large glasses.	...........................................................
3. The old man might have been looking at his host suspiciously.	...........................................................
4. The company was sold.	...........................................................
5. The stop had been planned by the tour guide.	...........................................................
More practice (answers on the website) 6. She was thoroughly surprised by him.	...........................................................
7. I might have been exaggerating.	...........................................................
8. The lasagna was cooked in the brand new oven.	...........................................................
9. The ship is circling the island.	...........................................................
10. Nice things were said about him.	...........................................................

To enhance your understandingLet’s compare another active/passive pair of sentences:
19a. Their aunt visits the children every Christmas.
19b. The children are visited by their aunt every Christmas.
In sentence 19a, why is the verb visits rather than visit? Since their aunt is one person,
we say visits. If there were more than one aunt, we’d say: Their aunts visit the children
every Christmas. So in an active sentence, the first noun phrase, the subject, controls the
form of the verb.
What happens when the direct object of the sentence, the children, is before the verb, as
in the passive sentence 19b? You can see that the first noun phrase, the children, is now
controlling the form of the verb: we say, the children are visited by their aunt every
Christmas (because there is more than one child). Even though there’s still only one aunt,aunt is no longer controlling the form of the verb. The important thing to keep in mind is
that in a sentence it is always the noun phrase before the verb, whether or not it’s doing the
action, that controls the form of the verb.Lesson 52: Active and passive sentences245
Lesson 53: Positive and negative sentencesThe following are all positive sentences:
1. I will think about it.
2. Timothy has called her.
3. The teacher was listening.
Can you turn them into negative sentences, using the word not? The related negative
sentences are:
4. I will not think about it.
5. Timothy has not called her.
6. The teacher was not listening.
(Of course, native speakers often put not in contractions, saying, for example, I won’t think
about it instead of I will not think about it; we will not be focusing on the contractions in
our discussion here.)
No native speaker of English would make the negative sentence something like, *I will
think about not it. That’s because there’s a systematic relationship between positive and
negative sentences, even though they don’t have the same meaning.We’re not usually consciously thinking about how to make a sentence negative, but we know how to do it, and
we do it in a consistent way.
Can you ¢gure out exactly where you put not in a sentence when you make it negative?
Here are some negative sentences, with not underlined and the helping verb in bold. (SeeLesson 31for a reminder about helping verbs.)
7. I am not going there next week.
8. That phone might not work.
9. She has not written to me often.
Where does the not go? You can see that it goes right after the helping verb.
What if a sentence has more than one helping verb? Again, the not in each sentence
below is underlined; the helping verbs are in bold.
10. That phone should not have worked.
11. She has not been writing to me often.
12. Those people should not have been attending the conference.
What pattern do you notice? You can see that not is always placed after the ¢rst helping
verb.Quick tip 53.1A sentence is made negative by inserting not after the first helping verb.Test yourself 53.1For each of the sentences below, insert the word not to make the sentence negative.
Sample: I should turn around. I should not turn around.246
Getting started (answers on p. 251)
1. Nate has been busy lately.............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................2. You might ask your father.............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................3. Interest rates are going up.............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................4. It could have been a hurricane.............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................5. I will be playing soccer tomorrow.............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................More practice (answers on the website)
6. George has had enough............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................7. She could have been saying that............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................8. He was being photographed............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................9. This company was sued for fraud............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................10. I can be persuaded to change my mind............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................Now make the following sentence negative:
13. I went there last week.
You probably ended up with the following:
14. I did not go there last week.
How did did end up here? Let’s look at some more examples to ¢gure it out:
15a. She writes to me often.
15b. She does not write to me often.
16a. Many important people attended the conference.
16b. Many important people did not attend the conference.
If we look at one of these sentences, such as I went there last week, we can see that it has a
main verb, went, but no helping verb. So when a sentence has no helping verb but we need
one, for example, to make the sentence negative, we use a form of do as the helping verb.
Notice that in that case, the tense information is not on the main verb, but on the form ofdo instead (do, does, did). This is exactly as expected.You may recall from Lesson 37 thatLesson 53: Positive and negative sentences247
tense is always indicated by the ¢rst verb; since do, and not the main verb, is the ¢rst verb
in the sentence, it is the one that carries the tense information.This leaves the main verb
in its base form. (The same is true for person and number information, distinguishing
between do and does.)Test yourself 53.2For each of the sentences below, insert the word not where it is needed to make the sentence
negative. Some sentences will have helping verbs; some will not, so insert the appropriate form ofdo where it is needed.
Sample:The soldier helped his comrade to his feet.The soldier did not help his comrade to his feet.Getting started (answers on p. 251)
1. This path will lead you to the stable.............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................2. Frank had been walking for hours.............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................3. Mr. Clay returned as soon as he could.............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................4. The principal of this school is thinking about retiring.............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................5. They have a swimming pool.............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................More practice (answers on the website)
6. You could have been more forthcoming.............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................7. That company imports products from Canada on a regular basis.............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................8. She has been a waitress for a long time.............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................9. He tries to write poetry twice a week.............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................10. This could be happening to you.............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................Quick tip 53.2In negative sentences, we use a form of do as the helping verb if the sentence does not
have any other helping verb. Example: He does not like spaghetti.
U N I T 1 7 : R E L A T E D S E N T E N C E S248
There is one main verb that doesn’t use do to form a negative sentence, even when the
sentence has no helping verb: that exception is be. In these next examples, there is no helping verb, just the main verb be (underlined); you can see that no form of do is needed to
form a negative sentence.

17a. She is awake now.	(positive sentence)
17b. She is not awake now.	(negative sentence)
18a. The judges were in their chambers.	(positive sentence)
18b. The judges were not in their chambers.	(negative sentence)

To enhance your understandingThe verb do has a number of different uses. Here are some examples:
19. I did not study. (helping verb)
20. I did it. (main verb)
21. I did think of it! (emphasis)249Lesson 53: Positive and negative sentences
Answer keys: Test yourself, Getting startedquestions – Unit 17Test yourself 51.11. They brought the clergyman their concerns.
2. I have an idea that you’ll like this movie.
3. You should hand the £ight attendant your ticket.
4. By noon, Jackie had turned her assignment in.
5. I ordered your favorite book for you.

Test yourself 52.1
1. The landscaper was hired by her neighbor.	passive
2. Tim chose the pastries.	active
3. Christine had driven about thirty or forty miles that day.	active
4. Little Suzie’s picture was taken by her grandmother.	passive
5. We are cooking something for lunch.	active
Test yourself 52.2

1. Amazing results are produced by that approach.
2. Marjorie Kelly was given ¢rst prize by the judges.
3. Those words were spoken byAbraham Lincoln.
4. This actor’s suit was designed byArmani.
5. One hundred new airplanes were ordered by Singapore Airlines.Test yourself 52.31. The complaint was ¢led by the tenant.
2. Many ideas are presented by the advertising agency.
3. The questionnaires are analyzed by the politicians.
4. Their house was damaged by £ood.
5. I was complimented by my colleagues.Test yourself 52.41. Her remarks touch Graham.
2. Awell-known architect built the tower.
3. The alarm bell breaks the silence.
4. Cortez conquered Mexico.
5. More than a billion people speak Chinese.

Test yourself 52.5
1. The trooper is pleased by the strategy.	passive
2. The building by the bank is new.	location

250
3. He was confused by that new information. passive
4. This afternoon we rested by the pond. location
5. The rally was attended by college students. passiveTest yourself 52.61. My o⁄ce is being redecorated by two newcomers to the ¢eld.
2. The stop had been planned by the tour guide.
3. Her house might have been damaged by the storm.
4. This book should be read by curious students.
5. The long awaited picture will be unveiled by the painter next Sunday.Test yourself 52.71. The complaint has been ¢led by the tenants.
2. The ideas are being presented by the advertising agency.
3. The questionnaires have been analyzed by the politicians.
4. A more interesting speech should have been given by the author.
5. The whole thing might have been forgotten by me.

Test yourself 52.8
1. The stories of his wealth have been exaggerated by others.	full passive
2. That best-seller was written by Tony Martin.	full passive
3. The bridge has been repaired.	truncated passive
4. The store is being watched.	truncated passive
5. We should have been warned by the contractor.	full passive
Test yourself 52.9
1. The celebrity was spotted at eight in the morning.	passive
2. Tom is carrying two large glasses.	active
3. The old man might have been looking at his host suspiciously.	active
4. The company was sold.	passive
5. The stop had been planned by the tour guide.	passive
Test yourself 53.1

1. Nate has not been busy lately.
2. You might not ask your father.
3. Interest rates are not going up.
4. It could not have been a hurricane.
5. I will not be playing soccer tomorrow.Test yourself 53.21. This path will not lead you to the stable.
2. Frank had not been walking for hours.
3. Mr. Clay did not return as soon as he could.
4. The principal of this school is not thinking about retiring.
5. They do not have a swimming pool.☞ FOR A REVIEW EXERCISE OF THIS UNIT, SEE THE WEBSITE.251Answer keys: Unit 17
Review matching exercise and answer key – Part IIIReview matching exerciseMatch the underlined word or words in each sentence to the appropriate term. Use each
term only once.
Sample: After Katie escorted her mother home, she went out to look for work.
adverbial clause
compound-complex sentence full passive truncated passive
compound sentence relative clause wh- question
imperative tag question yes/no question
negative sentence
1. Alexandra met a girl who lived in an apartment across the street....................................................................2. Do you feel that you can trust him?...................................................................3. Kirk wrote out a receipt and then they signed it....................................................................4. I have not actually seen a new version of that movie....................................................................5. That robot can do all the things that the technician does but it
can do them better....................................................................6. Remember to bring those papers....................................................................7. The city was rebuilt by its residents....................................................................8. The roads were built last year....................................................................9. Atreaty should be binding, shouldn’t it?...................................................................10. Why did Luke buy that house?...................................................................

Answer key: Review matching exercise – Part III1. Alexandra met a girl who lived in an apartment across the street.	relative clause
2. Do you feel that you can trust him?	yes/no question
3. Kirk wrote out a receipt and then they signed it.	compound sentence
4. I have not actually seen a new version of that movie.	negative sentence
5. That robot can do all the things that the technician does but it can do them better.	compound-complex sentence
6. Remember to bring those papers.	imperative
7. The city was rebuilt by its residents.	full passive
8. The roads were built last year.	truncated passive
9. Atreaty should be binding, shouldn’t it?	tag question
10. Why did Luke buy that house?	wh- question

252
List of Quick tipsUnit 1: NounsQuick tip 1.1 If you can put the word the in front of a word and it sounds like a unit, the
word is a noun.Quick tip 2.1 Concrete nouns refer to things we can perceive with one of our senses.
Abstract nouns cannot be perceived by our senses.Quick tip 2.2 If you can put his in front of a word and it sounds like a unit, the word is a
noun.Quick tip 4.1 Animate nouns refer to things that are alive; inanimate nouns refer to
things that are not alive.

Quick tip 5.1 If you can pluralize a noun in a sentence, it is functioning as a count noun.

Quick tip 5.2 If you can use many with a noun (when it is pluralized), it’s a count noun. If

you can use much with a noun, it’s a noncount noun.Quick tip 5.3 If you can use fewer with a noun (when it is pluralized), it’s a count noun. If
you can use less with a noun, it’s a noncount noun.Quick tip 6.1 Nouns that are actual names, for example Mary, are called proper nouns.
Nouns that are not names are called common nouns, e.g. girl.Quick tip 6.2 One way to identify a proper noun is to ask yourself: is this a noun I would
capitalize, no matter where it is in a sentence? If so, it’s a proper noun.Unit 2: VerbsQuick tip 7.1 If a word can have should in front of it and the phrase sounds complete, the
word is a verb. Examples: should leave, should sail, should discover, should complain.Leave, sail, discover, and complain are all verbs.Quick tip 7.2 If a word can have to in front of it and the phrase sounds complete, it’s a
verb. Examples: to leave, to sail, to discover, to complain. Leave, sail, discover, andcomplain are all verbs. (Note that we’re not talking here about two, too, or the to that
indicates direction, as in Let’s go to the park.)

Quick tip 9.1 The forms of the irregular verb be are: am, are, is, was, were, be, been, being.

Quick tip 9.2 If you can substitute a form of be for a verb and the meaning of the

sentence is basically the same, the verb is probably being used as a linking verb. The verbbe and its forms are also linking verbs.Quick tip 9.3 If you can substitute a form of seem for a verb and the meaning of the
sentence is basically the same, the verb is probably being used as a linking verb.253
Quick tip 9.4 Linking verbs are followed or modified by adjectives, while action verbs are
followed or modified by adverbs.Quick tip 10.1 Action verbs that act upon something are called transitive verbs. Action
verbs that do not act upon something are called intransitive verbs.Quick tip 10.2 If a verb (in any of its forms) can be put in one of the following slots, it is
transitive: (a) What did you ? (b) Who did you ? If a verb cannot be put in one
of these slots, it is intransitive.Quick tip 10.3 If a verb (in one of its forms) can be put in one of the following slots, it is
transitive: (a) He something. (b) He someone.

Quick tip 10.4	If a verb (in one of its forms) can be put in the following slot, it is
intransitive: He	.

Quick tip 10.5 Some verbs can be either transitive or transitive. These can occur in both
of the following slots: (a) He something / someone. (b) He .Quick tip 11.1 If you can substitute a single verb for a verb and the word following it, you
probably have a phrasal verb. For example, you can say, She pointed out the truth to us orShe showed the truth to us. Point out is a phrasal verb.Quick tip 11.2 If you can move a particle away from its verb, you have a phrasal verb. For
example, since you can say both She looked up the answer and She looked the answer up,look up is a phrasal verb.Unit 3: Determiners

Quick tip 12.1 There are only three articles in English: the, a and an.

Quick tip 13.1 There are only four demonstratives in English: this, that, these, and those.

Quick tip 14.1 The determiner possessive pronouns are: my, your, his, her, its, our, their.

Quick tip 15.1 Words of quantity, quantifiers, can act as determiners and precede a

noun. Some examples are: all, some, several, and much.Unit 4: AdjectivesQuick tip 16.1 If you can put a word between the and a noun (for example,the boy), then that word is an adjective.Unit 5: PrepositionsQuick tip 17.1 Prepositions are words, usually small, that typically indicate information
about direction, location, or time. There is only a small number of prepositions in English.
Some commonly used examples are at, from, in, on, and to.List of Quick tips254
Quick tip 17.2 If you can put a word in one of the empty slots in one of the following
sentences, the word is a preposition: I walked the table. It happened
that time.Unit 6: ConjunctionsQuick tip 18.1 There are three common coordinating conjunctions in English. They are:and, or, and but. Four less common ones are for, so, yet, and nor.Quick tip 18.2 A commonly used way to remember the coordinating conjunctions is to
think of FANBOYS: F (for), A (and), N (nor), B (but), O (or), Y (yet), S (so).Quick tip 19.1 Subordinating conjunctions connect a sentence with another sentence,
which is a subpart of it. The subpart sentence is called a dependent clause (or subordinate
clause). In the following sentence, the subordinating conjunction is underlined and the
dependent clause is in italics: Nick decided to try to escape, although he knew his chances
were slim.)Quick tip 19.2 The subordinating conjunction is always the first word of the dependent
clause.Quick tip 20.1 Correlative conjunctions are two-part conjunctions. Common correlative
conjunctions are: both /and, either /or, if /then, neither /nor.Unit 7: Pronouns

Quick tip 21.1 The subject pronouns are: I, you, he, she, it, we, they.

Quick tip 21.2 The object pronouns are: me, you, her, him, it, us, them.

Quick tip 22.1 The reflexive pronouns are: myself, yourself, himself, herself, itself,

ourselves, yourselves, themselves.

Quick tip 22.2 All the reflexive pronouns end in -self (singular) or -selves (plural).

Quick tip 23.1 There are only four demonstrative pronouns: this, that, these, and those.

Quick tip 24.1 Nominal possessive pronouns replace a whole noun (or noun phrase). For

example, instead of saying That book is Sally’s book we can simply say, That book is hers.
The nominal possessive pronouns are: mine, yours, his, hers, its, ours, theirs.Quick tip 25.1 Interrogative pronouns are question words. The interrogative pronouns
are: how, what, when, where, which, who, whom, whose, why. Look for the question mark
to help find them.Quick tip 26.1 The common relative pronouns are: that, which, who, whom, whose.
They refer back to a noun in the sentence.Quick tip 26.2 Relative pronouns are a type of subordinating conjunction. A relative
pronoun typically occurs soon after the noun it refers to. Example: He liked the teacher who
gave easy tests.List of Quick tips255
Unit 8: AdverbsQuick tip 27.1 Adverbs generally indicate information about location, time, degree, and
manner. They provide extra information about the action in a sentence, about adjectives
and about other adverbs.Quick tip 27.2 If you don’t know what else a word is (and you’ve eliminated the other
parts of speech), it’s probably an adverb.Quick tip 27.3 Can the word go in the following slot? Mary slept . If so, it’s
probably an adverb. For example, Mary slept peacefully. Peacefully is an adverb.Quick tip 27.4 Can the word go in the following slot? , I gave / will give my
speech. If so, it’s probably an adverb. For example, Yesterday, I gave my speech. Yesterdayis an adverb. Or: Tomorrow, I will give my speech. Tomorrow is an adverb.Quick tip 27.5 Can the word go in the following slot? He is happy. If so, it’s
probably an adverb. For example, He is very happy. Very is an adverb.Quick tip 27.6 Does the word end in the suffix -ly? Is it an adjective? If it ends in -ly and
it’s not an adjective, it’s probably an adverb (e.g. hopefully, happily, unusually).Unit 9: Noun phrases

Quick tip 28.1 A noun phrase can consist of a noun alone, for example audiences, John.

Quick tip 28.2 A noun phrase can consist of a determiner, one or more adjectives, and a

noun. The determiner and adjective(s) are optional.Quick tip 28.3 A noun phrase can consist of just a pronoun, for example he or them.Unit 10: Prepositional phrasesQuick tip 29.1 A prepositional phrase consists of a preposition plus a noun phrase, for
example in the closet.Unit 11: Verb phrases

Quick tip 30.1 Every verb phrase contains a verb, for example laughs, left.

Quick tip 30.2 A verb phrase can consist of a verb plus a noun phrase, for example

chased the ball.Quick tip 30.3 A verb phrase can consist of a linking verb plus an adjective, for exampleis tall.Quick tip 30.4 A verb phrase can consist of a verb plus a prepositional phrase, for
example drove to the mall.Quick tip 30.5 A verb phrase can consist of a verb plus a noun phrase plus a prepositional
phrase, for example drove her friend to the mall.List of Quick tips256
Unit 12: Auxiliary phrasesQuick tip 31.1 The basic helping verbs of English are:a. can may shall will must
could might should would
b. have has had
c. am are is
was were
be been beingQuick tip 31.2 If a sentence has both a main verb and a helping verb, the main verb is
always last.Quick tip 32.1 One kind of helping verb is called a modal. The basic modals of English are:can could
may might
shall should
will would
mustQuick tip 33.1 One kind of helping verb is the verb have. It has three forms: have, has,
and had.Quick tip 33.2 Have can be used as a helping verb or as a main verb. When have is used
as the main verb, it refers to the idea of possession. When have is used as the helping verb,
it is always followed by another verb.Quick tip 34.1 One kind of helping verb is be. It has the following forms: am, is, are, was,were, be, been, and being.Quick tip 34.2 Be and its forms can be used as a helping verb or as a main verb. When beis used as the helping verb, it is always followed by another verb.Quick tip 35.1 A sentence can have zero, one, or more than one helping verb. If there is
more than one, they will always be in the following relative order: modal +have +be.Quick tip 36.1 When the helping verb is progressive be, the next verb always has -ingadded to its base form. Example: is sleeping. The -ing verb form is called the present
participle.Quick tip 36.2 When have is the helping verb, the next verb typically has -ed or -enadded to its base form. Examples: has eaten, have watched. The verb form following the
helping verb have is called the past participle.Quick tip 36.3 When the helping verb is a modal, the next verb is always in its base form.
Example: can study.Quick tip 36.4 A noun that consists of a verb and the suffix -ing is called a gerund.
Example: Entertain-ing is fun.Quick tip 37.1 Time refers to a point in real life at which something occurs. Tense refers
to the grammatical form of a verb.Quick tip 37.2 Tense information is always indicated by the first verb in the sentence,
excluding modals.List of Quick tips257
Quick tip 37.3 Sentences with no helping verb are in either the present or past tense,
depending on the form of the verb.

Quick tip 37.4 Sentences with will followed by the main verb are in the future tense.

Quick tip 37.5 If a sentence has a form of have as a helping verb, it will have the word

perfect as part of the name of its tense.Quick tip 37.6 The present tense forms of have are have and has. The past tense form ofhave is had.Quick tip 37.7 If a sentence has will as a helping verb, it will have the word future as part
of the name of its tense.Quick tip 37.8 If a sentence has a form of be as a helping verb, it will have the wordprogressive as part of the name of its tense.Quick tip 37.9 The present tense forms of be are am, is, and are. The past tense forms ofbe are was and were.Unit 13: Subjects and objectsQuick tip 38.1 If the main verb of the sentence is an action verb, the subject of the
sentence is the doer of the action and generally comes before the verb. It can be found by
answering the question: ‘‘Who or what is doing the action?’’Quick tip 38.2 If the main verb of the sentence is a linking verb, the subject is who or
what the sentence is about; the subject is found before the verb.Quick tip 39.1 The direct object of a sentence is receiving the action. It can usually be
found by answering the question: ‘‘Who or what is being acted upon or receiving the
action?’’ The direct object typically occurs immediately after the verb.Quick tip 40.1 The indirect object of a sentence can be found by answering the question:
‘‘Who or what is receiving the direct object?’’Quick tip 40.2 An indirect object can occur: (a) after the direct object (which follows the
verb), with to or for introducing it, or (b) before the direct object (and after the verb),
without to or for. For example: Joan gave a present to Bill or Joan gave Bill a present. (Bill is
the indirect object in both sentences.)Quick tip 40.3 To help you decide if a sentence has an indirect object, see if the sentence
can be changed from a pattern like The boys left a note for their teacher to a sentence with
a pattern like The boys left their teacher a note, or vice versa.Quick tip 40.4 If the direct object is a pronoun, it must come before the indirect object.
Example: My sister sent it to her friend, *My sister sent her friend it.Quick tip 41.1 A subject pronoun is used when it is functioning as the subject of
the sentence. An object pronoun is used when it is functioning as: (a) the direct
object of the sentence; (b) the indirect object of the sentence; (c) the object of a
preposition.Quick tip 42.1 The subject of commands is an understood or implied you.List of Quick tips258
Unit 14: Compound phrasesQuick tip 43.1 Two noun phrases joined by a coordinating conjunction is called a
compound noun phrase.Quick tip 44.1 Two verb phrases joined by a coordinating conjunction is called a
compound verb phrase.Unit 15: The Functions of sentencesQuick tip 45.1 Sentences that make a statement are called declaratives; sentences that
ask a question are called interrogatives; sentences that give a command are called
imperatives; sentences that express strong emotion are called exclamations.

Quick tip 45.2 A yes/no question is one that can be answered by ‘‘yes’’ or ‘‘no.’’

Quick tip 45.3 A wh- question begins with one of the following wh- words (question

words): when, where, what, why, which, who, whom, how. Example: Where is the
meeting?Quick tip 45.4 A tag question contains a statement followed by a tag, such as could you?
aren’t they? hasn’t he? Example: She is leaving soon, isn’t she?Unit 16: Combining sentencesQuick tip 46.1 A clause is a free-standing sentence or a sentence within a sentence; a
clause or sentence contains at least a subject and a main verb.

Quick tip 46.2 A sentence can contain one or more clauses.

Quick tip 46.3 A sentence that contains only one clause, that is, one subject and one verb

phrase, is called a simple sentence.Quick tip 47.1 A sentence that is made up of two or more sentences (clauses) joined by a
coordinating conjunction (most commonly and, or, and but) is called a compound sentence.Quick tip 48.1 A complex sentence consists of at least two sentences (clauses): a main
clause and a dependent clause. The dependent clause is a subpart of the main clause and
adds information to it. Example, with the dependent clause underlined: Sally visited her
before she moved.Quick tip 48.2 A dependent clause is joined to another clause by a subordinating
conjunction such as although, if, where.Quick tip 48.3 The easiest way to identify a dependent clause is to look for a
subordinating conjunction and see if it’s followed by a sentence. If it is, then the
subordinating conjunction plus the sentence directly following it is a dependent clause.Quick tip 48.4 In a noun clause, the subordinating conjunction that can be deleted
following a main clause. Example: I think (that) it’s going to rain.Quick tip 49.1 A relative clause (adjective clause) is a kind of dependent clause; it
provides additional information about a noun phrase in the main clause. Example (relative
clause underlined): I brought the cookies that are on the plate.List of Quick tips259
Quick tip 49.2 Relative clauses begin with one of the relative pronouns: that, which,who, whom, whose.Quick tip 49.3 A relative pronoun connects the relative clause to the rest of the sentence.
All of the relative pronouns (except whose) also replace a noun phrase in the relative
clause. (Whose replaces a determiner.)Quick tip 49.4 A relative pronoun may be omitted before a noun phrase. Example: The
movie (that) I saw was exciting.Quick tip 49.5 A restrictive relative clause limits the noun phrase which it is modifying; a
nonrestrictive relative clause does not. A nonrestrictive relative clause is separated from
the main clause by pauses, and, when written, it is separated from the main clause by
commas. Examples: The dogs which were friendly were being trained as Seeing Eye dogs(restrictive). The dogs, which were friendly, were being trained as Seeing Eye dogs(nonrestrictive).Quick tip 50.1 A compound-complex sentence is a combination of a compound and a
complex sentence: it has at least two main clauses and at least one dependent clause.
Example: His friends were always there for William, and he appreciated the help that they
often gave him.Unit 17: Related sentencesQuick tip 52.1 Sentences with the subject before the verb are called active sentences.
Example: Charley repaired this computer.Quick tip 52.2 Sentences which do not have the subject before the verb are called
passive sentences. Example: This computer was repaired by Charley.Quick tip 52.3 The passive be helping verb is always placed after all the other helping
verbs, right before the main verb. Example: The table has been set by the waitress.Quick tip 52.4 A truncated passive is a passive sentence without the by and subject noun
phrase. Example: The proposal was discussed.

Quick tip 53.1 A sentence is made negative by inserting not after the first helping verb.

Quick tip 53.2 In negative sentences, we use a form of do as the helping verb if the

sentence does not have any other helping verb. Example: He does not like spaghetti.List of Quick tips260
Glossaryabstract noun: does not have physical attributes. Example: history. Contrastconcrete noun.actionverb: indicates action. Example: go. Contrast linking verb.active sentence: a sentence expressed in the active voice. Contrast passive
sentence.active (voice): a sentence in which the subject, de¢ned in terms of meaning, occurs
before the main verb. Example: A better team beat us. Contrast passive (voice).adjective: refers to a characteristic of a noun. See attributive adjective; predicate
adjective.adjective clause: see relative clause.adverb: refers to a characteristic of a verb, adjective, or another adverb. It generally
indicates information about location, time, degree, or manner. Example: quickly.adverbial clause: a dependent clause that functions as an adverb in the main clause
of a complex sentence. Example: It is obvious where we went wrong.animate noun: a human or an animal. Example: child. Contrast inanimate noun.article: a determiner that indicates whether or not a noun is a speci¢c one known to
both the speaker and the listener.The articles are: the and a/an. See de¢nite
article; inde¢nite article.attributive adjective: occursbefore a noun in a noun phrase. Example: aninteresting
movie. Contrast predicate adjective.auxiliary verb: see helping verb.auxiliary phrase: a phrase whose principal component is a helping (auxiliary) verb.
Example: have been wondering.base form: see verb base.clause: a free-standing sentence or a sentence within a sentence. See main clause;dependent clause; adverbial clause; noun clause; relative clause.common noun: refers to general categories ^ things other than speci¢c names.
Example: book. Contrast proper noun.complex sentence: contains one main clause and at least one dependent clause.
Example: Meredith was driving to work when she received a phone call from her
mother. Contrast simple sentence; compound sentence; compound-complex
sentence.compound-complex sentence: consists of at least two main clauses (compound) and
at least one dependent clause (complex). Example: Although I like traveling with
you, I am very tired and I have to ¢nish a project in the o⁄ce. Contrast simple
sentence; compound sentence; complex sentence.compound noun phrase: contains two or more noun phrases joined by a
coordinating conjunction. Example: Andy and his two sons went to the park.compound phrase: a phrase containing two or more linguistic units of the same type
(such as noun phrases, prepositional phrases, adverbs, sentences), joined by261
a coordinating conjunction. Example: up the block and around the corner. Seecompound noun phrase; compound verb phrase.compound preposition: see phrasal preposition.compound sentence: contains two or more sentences joined by a coordinating
conjunction. Example:You can pay me now, or you can pay melater. Contrast simple
sentence; complex sentence; compound-complex sentence.compound verb phrase: contains two or more verb phrases joined by a coordinating
conjunction. Example: He likes spaghetti but rarely orders it.concrete noun: possesses physical attributes. Example: table. Contrast abstract
noun.conjunction: a function word that connects grammatical units such as words,
phrases, and sentences. See coordinating conjunction; subordinating
conjunction; correlative conjunction.continuous (aspect): see progressive (aspect).coordinating conjunction: connects any two units that are the same type, such as
sentences (I go or he goes), nouns (milk and cookies), verbs (drink and drive),
determiners (Jack’s and Nancy’s), prepositions (at or near), adjectives (healthy
and nutritious), or adverbs (softly but forcefully). The three most common
coordinating conjunctions are: and, or, and but. Four less common ones are:for, so, yet, and nor. Contrast subordinating conjunction; correlative
conjunction.copula: the linking verb be.The forms of be are: am, are, is, was, were, be, been,
being. Example: She is happy.The term is sometimes used to refer to any linking
verb.correlative conjunction: a two-part conjunction. Common correlative
conjunctions are: both / and, either /or, if /then, and neither /nor. Example: Either
I cook or we order take-out. Contrast coordinating conjunction; subordinating
conjunction.count noun: a noun that is countable. Count nouns can be used with the
determiners a/an, many (as opposed to much), and fewer (as opposed to less), and
can have plural forms. Example: a book, many books, fewerbooks. Contrastnoncount noun.declarative sentence: expresses a statement. Example:The sun rises every
morning. Compare imperative sentence; interrogative sentence;exclamation.de¢nite article: the determiner the, used with a noun that has speci¢c identity.
Example: the ¢nal exam. Contrast inde¢nite article.demonstrative: a determiner or pronoun whose reference is de¢ned in context,
‘‘pointing’’ to something or someone. See demonstrative determiner;demonstrative pronoun.demonstrative adjective: see demonstrative determiner.demonstrative determiner: this and that (singular) and these and those (plural)
when used before a noun. Example: this morning. Also called demonstrative
adjective. Contrast demonstrative pronoun.demonstrative pronoun: this, that, these, those when used alone, without a
following noun. Example: I want this. Contrast demonstrative determiner.dependent clause: the secondary clause in a complex sentence in terms of meaning
and structure, forming a subpart of the main clause. Example: Many people feelGlossary262
good in the morning after they’ve had a good night’s sleep. Also called subordinate
clause. Contrast main clause.determiner: one of several types of words occurring before a noun. Example: some
people. See article; demonstrative; possessive; quanti¢er; interrogative
determiner.determiner possessive pronoun: a possessive pronoun used before a noun.
Example: our decision.The determiner possessive pronouns are: my, your, his, her,
its, our, their. Also called possessive pronounwith determiner function;possessive adjective. Contrast nominal possessive pronoun.direct object: a noun phrase that functions as the recipient of the subject’s action. In
most sentences, expressed in the active voice, the direct object occurs after the
main verb. Example:We met Anne in the restaurant. Also called object. Contrastsubject; indirect object.exclamation: a sentence that expresses strong emotion and does not necessarily
contain a subject and a main verb. Example:What a day! Contrast declarative
sentence; imperative sentence; interrogative sentence.¢rst person pronoun: see personal pronoun.future perfect progressive tense: indicated by the modal will (or shall) and perfecthave helping verbs followed by the been (past participle) form of the progressive behelping verb and the present participle form of the next verb. Example: My students
will have been studying.future perfect tense: indicated by the modal will (or shall) helping verb followed by
perfect have and the past participle of the next verb. Example: My students will have
studied.future progressive tense: indicated by the modal will (or shall) and progressive behelping verbs followed by the present participle form of the next verb. Example: My
students will be studying.future tense: indicated when the modal helping verb will (or shall) is followed by the
main verb. Example: My students will study. Also called simple future tense.gerund: a noun that is derived from a verb by adding the su⁄x -ing. Example:Cooking is fun.grammatical function: the role a linguistic unit plays with respect to other units
within a grammatical structure. Example: the noun Anne functions as the subject
in the sentence Anne went to sleep, as the direct object in the sentenceWe met Anne in
the restaurant, and as the indirect object in the sentence Someone sent a present to
Anne. Also called grammatical relation.grammatical relation: see grammatical function.helping verb: a verb that augments the main verb and as such belongs to an auxiliary
phrase. Example: I might call you today. Also called auxiliary verb. See modal;perfect have; progressive be; passive be. Contrast mainverb.human (animate) noun: a person. Contrast nonhuman noun; nonhuman animate
noun.hypercorrection: producing an incorrect form by applying a general rule beyond its
correct domain (‘‘overapplying’’a rule). Example:When producing *I feel badlyinstead of I feel bad, the use of an adverb to modify action verbs is extended to
linking verbs as well.imperative sentence: a command. Example: Give me a hug! Contrast declarative
sentence; interrogative sentence; exclamation.Glossary263
inanimate noun: a thing. Contrast animate noun.inde¢nite article: the determiner a/an, used before a singular noun whose identity
is not speci¢c.The a variant is used when the next word begins with a consonant
sound; the an variant is used when the next word begins with a vowel sound.
Example: a mystery; an experience. Contrast de¢nite article.independent clause: see main clause.indirect object: a noun phrase that functions as the recipient of the direct object. In
most sentences, expressed in the active voice, the indirect object occurs after the
main verb, either before the direct object or after it. Example: Someone sent Anne a
present; Someone sent a present to Anne. Contrast subject; direct object.in¢nitive: either the verb base (example: read) or to + verb base (example: to read).interrogative determiner: question word occurring before a noun.The
interrogative determiners are: which, whose, what. Example:Which option do you
prefer? Contrast interrogative pronoun.interrogative pronoun: question word used alone, without a following noun.
Common interrogative pronouns are: how, what, when, where, which, who, whom,
whose, why. Example:Which do you prefer? Contrast interrogative determiner.interrogative sentence: expresses a question. Example: Are we having fun? See yes/
no question; wh-question; tag question. Contrast declarative sentence;interrogative sentence; exclamation.intransitive verb: does not act on something; it is not followed by a direct object.
Example: I sleep. Contrast transitive verb.irregular plural: formed by means other than adding -(e)s to a noun. Example: geese.
Contrast regular plural.irregular verb: does not form its past tense by adding the su⁄x -ed. Example: see(past tense saw). Contrast regular verb.linking verb: a verb which does not express action. Rather, its main function is to
relate (link) the subject to a complement. Example:They seemed anxious.The most
common linking verb is be (see copula). Contrast actionverb.main clause: the primary clause in a complex sentence in terms of meaning and
structure. Example: Many people feel good in the morning after they’ve had a good
night’s sleep. Also called independent clause. Contrast dependent clause.mainverb: the principal verb of a sentence or phrase; it belongs to a verb phrase.
Example: I might call you today. Contrast helping verb.mass noun: see noncount noun.modal: a type of helping verb that expresses categories of modality, such as
possibility and necessity. Example: I might visit you tomorrow. See phrasal modal.negative sentence: expresses negation by including the word not after the ¢rst
helping verb. Example:You have not been honest with me. Compare positive
sentence.nominal possessive pronoun: a possessive pronoun used alone, without a
following noun.The nominal possessive pronouns are: mine, yours, his, hers, its,
ours, theirs. Example:That book is hers. Contrast determiner possessive
pronoun.noncount noun: a noun that is not countable. Noncount nouns can be used with the
determiners much (as opposed to many) and less (as opposed to fewer), but not with
the inde¢nite article a/an, and they do not have plural forms. Example: muchGlossary264
furniture; less furniture; *a furniture; *furnitures. Also called mass nouns.
Contrast count noun.nonhuman animate noun: an animal. Contrast human animate noun.nonhuman noun: an animal or a thing. Contrast human noun.nonrestrictive relative clause: does not limit the reference of the noun phrase it
modi¢es. Example: All the students, who studied hard, did well on the ¢nal exam,
meaning that all students did well on the ¢nal exam and all students studied hard.
Compare restrictive relative clause.noun: commonly de¢ned as referring to a person, place, thing, or idea. It is the
principal component of a noun phrase (except when replaced by a pronoun). Seeabstract noun; animate noun; common noun; concrete noun; count noun;human (animate) noun; inanimate noun; noncount noun; nonhuman animate
noun; nonhuman noun; possessive common noun; possessive proper noun;proper noun.noun clause: a dependent clause that functions as a noun phrase in the main clause of
a complex sentence. Example: It is obvious that you are a learned woman.noun phrase: a phrase whose principal component is a noun, or its replacement, a
pronoun. It ful¢lls various grammatical functions within a sentence, such as
subject, direct object, and indirect object. Example: these £owers; you.number: a grammatical category that refers to the distinction between singular (one
entity) and plural (more than one entity) in nouns and pronouns. Example: bush, I(singular); bushes, we (plural).object: refers to direct object, indirect object, or object of a preposition.object of a preposition: the noun phrase that follows the preposition in a
prepositional phrase. Example: to us.object pronoun: the form of a personal pronoun that is used when the pronoun has an
object function.This happens when the personal pronoun is the direct object,
indirect object, or object of a preposition. Example: George sawher (direct object);George sent her a message (indirect object); George heard from her (object of a
preposition).The object pronouns are: me, you, her, him, it, us, them. Contrastsubject pronoun.particle: the second word in a phrasal verb. It follows the verb, from which it can be
separated. Example:We looked up the answer / We looked the answer up.passive (voice): the structural con¢guration of a sentence in which the
subject, de¢ned in terms of meaning, does not occur before the main verb.
The main verb appears in its past participle form, preceded by the helping verb
passive be. Example: We were beaten by a better team. Contrast active (voice).passive be: the verb used in the formation of the passive voice.passive sentence: a sentence expressed in the passive voice. See truncated passive.
Contrast active sentence.past participle: a verb form most commonly ending in the su⁄x -ed or -en (other
forms exist). It is used in the formation of the perfect aspect and the passive voice.
Example:We were beaten by a better team.past perfect progressive tense: indicated by the had form of the perfect havehelping verb followed by the been (past participle) form of the progressive behelping verb and the present participle form of the next verb. Example: My
students had been studying.Glossary265
past perfect tense: indicated by the had form of the perfect have helping verb and the
past participle form of the next verb. Example: My students had studied.past progressive tense: indicated by the was or were form of the progressive behelping verb and the present participle form of the next verb. Example: My students
were studying.past tense: indicated when the main verb is not preceded by a helping verb and has
the su⁄x -ed added to its base. Example: My students studied. Also called simple
past tense. See irregular verb for exceptions.perfect (aspect): indicates a time period prior to another time period. It is expressed
by perfect have plus the past participle form of the following verb. Example:We have
eaten already.perfect have: the helping verb used in the formation of the perfect aspect.periphrastic modal: see phrasal modal.personalpronoun: a type of pronoun that has di¡erent forms, depending onwhether
it refers to the speaker (¢rst person), listener (second person), or anyone/anything
else (third person). See object pronoun; possessive pronoun; re£exive pronoun;subject pronoun.phrasal modal: a modal consisting of more than one word. Example:You are able to do
this.phrasal preposition: a preposition consisting of more than one word. Example:across from.phrasal verb: a verb consisting of two words. Example: She pointed out the truth. See:particle.phrase: a group of related words forming a grammaticalunit that does not have both a
subject and a main verb. A phrase may also contain a single word if that word is
de¢ned as the principal component of the phrase. Example: verb phrases may
contain a number of words (writes a message), or just one word (writes). Seeauxiliary phrase; compound phrase; noun phrase; prepositional phrase; verb
phrase.plural: see number.plural pronoun: see number
positive sentence: expresses an assertion. Example:You have been honest with me.
Compare negative sentence.possessive: indicates to whom or to what a noun phrase belongs. See possessive
pronoun; possessive proper noun; possessive common noun.possessive adjective: see determiner possessive pronoun.possessive common noun: functions as an adjective when preceding a noun.
Example:The girl’s shoes.possessive pronoun: see determiner possessive pronoun; nominal possessive
pronoun.possessive pronounwith determiner function: see determiner possessive
pronoun.possessive pronoun with nominal function: see nominal possessive pronoun.possessive proper noun: functions as a determiner in a noun phrase. Example:Mary’s red shoes. See proper noun.predicate adjective: occurs following a linking verb in a verb phrase. Example:The
movie was interesting. Contrast attributive adjective.Glossary266
preposition: a function word before a noun phrase that typically indicates
information about direction, location, or time. Example: from the kitchen. Seephrasal preposition.prepositional phrase: a phrase consisting of a preposition and a noun phrase.
Example: in the store.present participle: a verb form ending in the su⁄x -ing. It is used in the formation of
the progressive aspect.present perfect progressive tense: indicated by the have orhas form of the perfecthave helping verb followed by the been (participle) form of the progressive behelping verb and the present participle form of the next verb. Example: My students
have been studying.present perfect tense: indicated by the have orhas form of the perfect have helping
verb and the past participle form of the next verb. Example: My student has studied.present progressive tense: indicated by the am, are, or is form of the progressive behelping verb and the present participle form of the next verb. Example: My students
are studying.present tense: indicated when the main verb is not preceded by a helping verb and its
form corresponds to the verb base or verb base followed by -(e)s (be is a notable
exception). Example: My students study; My student studies. Also called simple
present tense.progressive (aspect): information that the duration of the action or state signi¢ed by
the main verb extends over a period of time. It is expressed by progressive be jointly
with the present participle of the following verb. Example:We are eating dinner.progressive be: the helping verb used in the formation of the progressive aspect.pronoun: a function word that replaces (stands in for) a linguistic unit, most
commonly a noun phrase. See demonstrative pronoun; interrogative pronoun;personal pronoun; relative pronoun.proper noun: refers to a speci¢c name; begins with capital letters. Example: New
York. Contrast: common noun.quanti¢er: a determiner that indicates amount or quantity. Example: all topics.re£exive pronoun: replaces the second of two noun phrases that refer to the same
person or thing within the same clause.The re£exive pronouns are: myself,yourself, himself, herself, itself, ourselves, yourselves, themselves. Example: Harry
saw himself in the mirror.regular plural: formed with the su⁄x -(e)s added to nouns. Example: gardens, boxes.
Contrast irregular plural.regular verb: forms its past tense by adding the su⁄x -ed to the verb base. Example:walk (past tense walked). Contrast irregular verb.relative clause: a dependent clause that adds information about a noun phrase in the
main clause of a complex sentence. A relative clause is introduced by a relative
pronoun, which may be omitted before a noun phrase. Example:The ice-cream
(that) you bought for me tastes delicious. See restrictive relative clause; nonrestrictive relative clause.relative pronoun: a subordinating conjunction which introduces a relative clause
and refers back to the preceding noun phrase. Example: He liked the teacher who
gave easy tests.The common relative pronouns are: that, which, who, whom,Glossary267
whose. Other relative pronouns, such as whatever, whoever, whomever, whosever (all
ending in -ever), represent, rather than refer back to, a noun phrase. Example:They
can travel with whomever they choose.restrictive relative clause: limits the reference of the noun phrase it modi¢es.
Example: All the students who studied hard did well on the ¢nal exam, meaning that
all and only those students did well on the ¢nal exam who studied hard. Comparenon-restrictive relative clause.second person pronoun: see personal pronoun.sentence: minimally contains a subject and a main verb, except for exclamations and
imperatives. See active sentence; clause; complex sentence; complexcompound sentence; compound sentence; declarative sentence; exclamation;imperative sentence; interrogative sentence; negative sentence; passive
sentence; positive sentence; simple sentence.simple future tense: see future tense.simple past tense: see past tense.simple present tense: see present tense.simple sentence: made up of just one sentence (contains only one clause). Example:Paris is the capital of France. Contrast compound sentence; complex sentence;compound-complex sentence.singular: see number.singular pronoun: see number.subject: a noun phrase that functions as the performer of an actionverb or the topic of
a linking verb. In most sentences, expressed in the active voice, the subject occurs
before the verb. Example: Anne went to sleep; Anne is a dentist. Contrast direct
object; indirect object.subject pronoun: the form of a personal pronoun that is used when the pronoun
functions as the subject.The subject pronouns are: I, you, he, she, it, we, they.
Example: He is happy. Contrast object pronoun.subordinate clause: see dependent clause.subordinating conjunction: connects the main clause and the dependent clause in a
complex sentence. Example: Many people feel good in the morning after they’ve had a
good night’s sleep. Contrast coordinating conjunction; correlative conjunction.tag question: a statement followed by a question‘‘tag.’’ Example: She is leaving, isn’t
she? Contrast yes/no question; wh-question.tense: the form of averb through which a grammar indicates information about time.
See future tense; future perfect tense; future perfect progressive tense; future
progressive tense; past tense, past perfect tense; past perfect progressive
tense; past progressive tense; present tense; present perfect tense; present
perfect progressive tense; present progressive tense.third person pronoun: see personal pronoun.transitive verb: acts on something; it is followed by a direct object. Example: I threw
the ball. Contrast intransitive verb.truncated passive: a passive sentence in which the subject, de¢ned in terms of
meaning, is not expressed. Example:The proposal was discussed.verb: the principal component of a verb phrase. It indicates action or state of being.
See actionverb; helping verb; intransitive verb; irregular verb; linking verb;mainverb; phrasal verb; regular verb; transitive verb; verb base.Glossary268
verb base: the form of a verb that contains no grammatical information. It occurs in
the in¢nitive expression, among others. Example: to go.verb complement: a unit that occurs after a linking verb and refers back to the
subject. Example:The patient seemed anxious.verb phrase: a phrase whose principal component is a main verb. Example: saw a
movie.wh-question: begins with a wh-word (interrogative pronoun). Example:Where is the
meeting? Contrast yes/no question; tag question.yes/no question: can be answered with a‘‘yes’’or ‘‘no.’’ Example: Is today Sunday?Contrast wh-question; tag question.Glossary269
Indexactive see sentence, activeadjective 33^34, 51, 58^60, 104attributive 128, 130demonstrative see determiner, demonstrativepossessive see pronoun, determiner
possessivepredicate 128, 130adjective clause see clause, relativeadverb 103^104article 45, 46de¢nite 46inde¢nite 46aspect see perfect; progressivebase form see verb baseclause 207adverbial 172, 218dependent 73^74, 214^220, 221, 222, 229independent see clause, mainmain 214noun 218^219relative 220, 221^226, 228nonrestrictive 226^228restrictive 226^228subordinate see clause, dependentsee also sentence
command see sentence, imperativeconjunction 69, 97, 193coordinating 70, 193^195, 210correlative 77subordinating 73^74, 97, 214^215, 219continuous see progressivecontraction 28, 246copula 28; see also verb, linkingdemonstrative 45, 48, 87; see also determiner,
demonstrative; pronoun, demonstrativedeterminer 45^53, 224demonstrative 87interrogative 95dialect xi
function, grammatical 169^186,203gerund 154hypercorrection 130in¢nitive 66; see also verb basemodal see verb, helpingnoun 3, 35, 113, 154abstract 5^6animate 12common 18possessive 51concrete 5count 14^17human 12human animate see noun, humaninanimate 12mass see noun, noncountnoncount 14^17nonhuman 12nonhuman animate 12proper 18^19, 117, 228possessive 50^51number 9plural 9^11, 84irregular 9, 10regular 9, 10singular 9, 84object 40, 82^84, 169, 238direct 35, 173^174, 177indirect 177^179, 235see also object of a preposition; pronoun,
objectobject of a preposition 121, 183part of speech 1, 8, 60particle 38, 39, 40, 123, 235270
passive see sentence, passive; see also passivebe; truncated passive
passive be see verb, helpingpast participle 152^153, 154, 155,159, 239perfect see perfect have; see also tense
perfect have see verb, helpingphrase 111auxiliary 138basic structure of 139compound 193, 212noun 111basic structure of 113^118compound 194, 209, 212prepositional 121, 174basic structure of 121^123verb 111basic structure of 126^134compound 195plural see numberpossessive 45, 50^51; see also noun, common,
possessive; noun, proper, possessive;pronoun, possessivepossessive pronoun with determiner
function see pronoun, determiner
possessivepossessive pronoun with nominal functionsee pronoun, nominal possessivepreposition 65^66,76, 123, 185compound see preposition, phrasalphrasal 67see also object of a prepositionpresent participle 151, 154, 155, 161progressive see verb, helping; see also tense
progressive be see verb, helpingpronoun 81contracted 90demonstrative 87determiner possessive 50, 90functions of 183^185interrogative 93nominal possessive 90object 83^84, 183personal 84possessive 50^51, 89^90; see also pronoun,
determiner possessive; pronoun,
nominal possessivere£exive 85relative 96^97, 98, 223, 224, 225^226subject 82^84;183quanti¢er 45, 53question see sentence, interrogativequestion word see pronoun, interrogativerelation, grammatical see function,
grammaticalsentence 201active 238^239, 245complex 214^216, 218, 221compound 210^211, 212compound-complex 229declarative 203exclamation 203functions of 203^205imperative 186^187, 203interrogative 203tag question 204^205wh- question 204yes/no question 204negative 246^249passive 238^239, 241^242,244, 245positive 246simple 157, 207^209, 210, 211, 212see also clausesingular see numberStandard American English xi
subject 170^172, 184, 186^187, 207, 238^239; see
also pronoun, subjecttense 156^162, 247^248future 158future perfect 160future perfect progressive 162future progressive 161past 157past perfect 159past perfect progressive 162past progressive 161present 157present perfect 159present perfect progressive162present progressive 161simple future see tense, futuresimple past see tense, pastsimple present see tense, presenttruncated passive 242; see also passive;passive beIndex271
verb 23action 27, 30^34, 128, 130, 170, 173^174auxiliary see verb, helpinghelping 138^139do 247^249modal 141^142, 148, 153^155, 157, 158passive be 239, 242perfect have 143^145,148,151^155,159^160,162periphrastic see verb, helping, modal,
phrasalphrasal 142progressive be 146^147, 148, 151, 153^155,157, 161^162intransitive 35^37irregular 28, 157^158linking 27^28, 30^34,128, 130, 147, 174; see
also copulamain 138,139,144^145,147,157,170^171, 207,247^249phrasal 38^39, 123, 142regular 157transitive 35^37see also verb baseverb base 25verb complement 174^175voice see sentence, active; sentence,
passiveword category see part of speechIndex272 

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