Getting a Grip on Grammar
In This Chapter
Surveying the basic elements of grammarWatching out for punctuation and spellingCoping with everyday writing tasks
Lots of people groan when they hear the word grammar. They think that
grammar is just a long list of picky rules. Who cares if you say had gone or
went? Why worry about the choice between I and me? These issues can seem
silly. Wouldn’t it be better to spend time searching for a cancer cure?
Yes, grammar is often picky. Certainly, the world needs more than grammar
— much more! Yet proper language does matter. Rightly or wrongly, many
people judge your intelligence and ability based on the way you speak and
write. Better jobs and higher grades often go to those who follow the rules. In
this chapter, you survey key elements of Standard English — grammar,
spelling, and much more.
Getting to Know the Elements of Proper English
When you bake a cake, you need all the right ingredients. If you forget one,the cake is tasteless. English has a number of ingredients, too. You cannot
ignore any if you wish to express yourself correctly. Here are the ingredients
of proper English:
Parts of speech: Words are like people. Both base a portion of their
identity on the work they do. Words that name people or things, for
example, are nouns. English teachers call the identity of a word the part
of speech. Understanding how to select the appropriate part of speech is
an important aspect of grammar.
Parts of a sentence: Words seldom like to be alone. (This is another
quality that words and people have in common.) When words join
together, they form sentences. Complete sentences are essential in formal
writing.
Mechanics: Surprised? Usually, mechanics repair cars and other
machines. In language, the term mechanics refers to the little things that
help readers understand what you mean. Spelling and capitalization are
included in mechanics. So is punctuation, the placement of periods,
commas, question marks, and other symbols. Without proper mechanics,
your writing suffers.
Word order: In English, location partly determines meaning. The dog bit
John is different from John bit the dog. In the first version, the dog is in
trouble. In the second, John has a problem. You should know the rules
that govern the placement of words.
Word choice: Some words sound alike (eye and I, for example). Others
are nearly twins (for instance, affect and effect). Selecting the wrong word
can wreck your writing.
Word forms: Today I walk. Yesterday I walked. The form of the word
walk changes to reveal the time period of the action. Knowing the correct
form is essential.
These are the main ingredients that cook up proper English.
Did you go to grammar school?
In the Middle Ages, the word grammar meant education. The term applied to all sorts of
learning, not just to rules of the language. This old definition lasted a long time. When I was a
child, quite a few centuries after the Middle Ages ended, I attended grammar school. I did
study English grammar during grades one through eight. I also had lessons in math, history,
science, and many other subjects. Now, children enroll in elementary or primary school, not
grammar school. Even so, the link between proper English usage and education remains
strong.
Building Language, Block by Block:Parts of Speech
According to one survey, the English language includes more than one
million words. All those words can be sorted into one of eight boxes: the
parts of speech. Take a look at the Big Eight:
- Nouns
- Pronouns
- Verbs
- Adjectives
- Adverbs
- Prepositions
- Conjunctions
- Interjections
Not every box has the same number of words in it. The interjection container
is light. The noun and verb containers are huge. The other boxes fall
somewhere in between.
Just to give you an idea how these parts of speech look within a sentence,
here are some examples. The parts of speech are underlined and labeled:
Nora likes algebra. (Nora and algebra are nouns.)
I told you the story already. (I and you are pronouns.)
The baby shook the rattle. (Shook is a verb.)
Great speeches require intense practice. (Great and intense are
adjectives.)
Glen wrote his name carefully and correctly. (Carefully and correctly are
adverbs.)
A play by that author received great reviews from the critics. (By and from
are prepositions.)
Nora and Fred like opera, but Sal prefers jazz. (And and but are
conjunctions.)
Wow, those tickets are cheap! (Wow is an interjection.)
You may ask, “Why should anyone bother labeling parts of speech?” Good
question! Most of the time, you think about the meaning of a word, not its
part of speech. Most of the time, your writing is correct. However, some
important grammar rules depend upon knowing the difference between one
part of speech and another. For example, an adjective is a word that describes
people, places, or things. An adverb is also a description, but it cannot do an
adjective’s job.
Take a look at these examples. Pay close attention to the underlined words:
WRONG: Today the weather is beautifully.
WHY IT IS WRONG: Beautifully is not the proper part of speech for this
spot in the sentence. Beautifully is an adverb. You need an adjective here.
RIGHT: Today the weather is beautiful.
WHY IT IS RIGHT: The adjective beautiful works well here.
WRONG: Bill and Tina agenda the next meeting.
WHY IT IS WRONG: Agenda is a noun. You need an action word (a
verb).
RIGHT: Bill and Tina wrote the agenda for the next meeting.
WHY IT IS RIGHT: The verb wrote provides the action. Agenda correctly
appears as a noun.
WRONG: The puppy lifted it’s paw.
WHY IT IS WRONG: You need a pronoun in this spot. It’s means “it is.”
RIGHT: The puppy lifted its paw.
WHY IT IS RIGHT: Its is a pronoun.
WRONG: The rumor spread threw the class.
WHY IT IS WRONG: Threw is a verb. You should not have an action
word here.
RIGHT: The rumor spread through the class.
WHY IT IS RIGHT: The verb is gone. In its place you have a preposition,
a word that relates ideas. In this sentence, it relates spread and class,
showing where the rumor spread.
In Part II, you find in-depth information on every part of speech. Well, every
part of speech except for interjections. An interjection is a word that briefly
comments on the rest of the sentence. Ouch, wow, and oh are interjections. I
do not provide in-depth commentary on interjections. They have no depth!
They simply add a little interest to your conversation.
Every dictionary tells you the part of speech of the word, usually
right in front of the definition. Some words may have several labels,
because they change their identity in different sentences. For more
information on how to understand every part of a dictionary definition,
see Chapter 21.
Making Sentences
A judge sentences criminals to prison. There, criminals must follow many
rules. You may feel that English sentences are prisons, too. So many rules
apply to them! I am just kidding. English sentences are definitely not prisons.
They are structures to hold your thoughts. They help your reader pick apart
one idea from another. Take a peek at this paragraph:
going to the beach bad idea no pets allowed want take the dog he does
not bite you know kind and friendly he is to the park instead
Oh, my! In that paragraph, all the ideas are jumbled together. It resembles a
closet with no hangers. The clothes are impossible to find.
Take another look at the same paragraph, this time with proper sentences:
Going to the beach is a bad idea. No pets are allowed. I want to take the
dog. He does not bite. You know how kind and friendly he is. We
should go to the park instead.
This one is easier to understand, isn’t it? The extra words, capital letters, and
punctuation are like hangers. They organize your thoughts into complete
sentences. In doing so, they sort out ideas the way hangers sort out clothing.
Complete and proper sentences are not always necessary. When you
speak with your friends, for instance, you may use half-sentences.
Read this conversation. Imagine that Joe and Barbara are speaking to or
texting each other:
Joe: Want to go to the beach?
Barbara: Not without my dog.
Joe: Okay, the park instead.
These comments work well because Joe and Barbara are not in a formal
situation. To find out when formal English is necessary and when
conversational English will do, turn to Chapter 2. For more about grammar
and texting, see Chapter 18.
When you do want to create grammatically correct sentences, you must pay
attention to several issues. The sections that follow briefly show you these
issues.
Action or being words
Every sentence has at least one word that expresses action or being. That
word is a verb. In these sentences, the verbs are underlined:
Candice loves her engagement ring. (loves = action word)
Duke ate every dog biscuit in the box. (ate = action word)
She will be pleased with your work. (will be = being words)
Were the lights on? (Were = being word)
Selecting the right verb form is important. Glance at these examples. Notice
the underlined verbs:
WRONG: You was wrong.
WHY IT IS WRONG: The verb form was does not pair properly with
you.
RIGHT: You were wrong.
WHY IT IS RIGHT: Were is the verb form that matches you. (To learn
more about this topic, see Chapter 9.)
WRONG: The mayor speaked to voters yesterday.
WHY IT IS WRONG: Speaked is not correct in Standard English.
RIGHT: The mayor spoke to voters yesterday.
WHY IT IS RIGHT: Spoke is the irregular verb form you need in this
sentence. (For more information about irregular verb forms, see Chapter
10.)
WRONG: John studying for his exam.
WHY IT IS WRONG: The verb form studying is not complete.
RIGHT: John is studying for his exam.
WHY IT IS RIGHT: Now the verb is complete. (See Chapter 9 for more
about these verb forms.)
As you see, you can make many mistakes with action and being words. Verbs
are complicated! Do not panic. The chapters I mention in the preceding
examples explain the rules you must follow.
Subjects
In a sentence, someone or something does the action or exists in the state of
being. That word is the subject. Notice the underlined subjects in these
example sentences:
Cindy arrived at ten o’clock. (Cindy = subject)
We had sandwiches for lunch. (We = subject)
The sandwiches were delicious. (sandwiches = subject)
Do you like peanut butter? (you = subject)
It is smooth and sticky. (It = subject)
Jelly and jam go well with peanut butter. (Jelly and jam = subjects)
Most times, you know who or what you want to write about. The subject, in
other words, is usually easy to select. When the subject is a pronoun, errors
often occur. Examine these examples. The underlined words are important:
WRONG: Him and John failed the Latin test.
WHY IT IS WRONG: Him cannot be a subject.
RIGHT: He and John failed the Latin test.
WHY IT IS RIGHT: He is a proper subject.
WRONG: Are youse ready?
WHY IT IS WRONG: Youse is not the plural of you. Youse is not a
Standard English form.
RIGHT: Are you ready?
WHY IT IS RIGHT: You is Standard English. You is both singular (one)
and plural (more than one).
WRONG: Us friends should stick together.
WHY IT IS WRONG: Us is not a proper subject.
RIGHT: We friends should stick together.
WHY IT IS RIGHT: We is a proper subject.
Chapter 4 explains which pronouns work as subjects.
Pairing subjects with verbs can also cause trouble. Check these examples. Pay
attention to the underlined words:
WRONG: Mr. Smith and Ms. Jones has been promoted.
WHY IT IS WRONG: Has been promoted pairs up with one person. In
this sentence, you have two people, Mr. Smith and Ms. Jones.
RIGHT: Mr. Smith and Ms. Jones have been promoted.
WHY IT IS RIGHT: The verb have been promoted matches well with Mr.
Smith and Ms. Jones. Both are plural (more than one).
WRONG: The list of grammar rules are too long.
WHY IT IS WRONG: The subject of the sentence is list, a singular word.
It cannot pair with are, a plural verb form. Did you focus on rules? Rules
is not the subject of this sentence. It is part of a description, of grammar
rules.
RIGHT: The list of grammar rules is too long.
WHY IT IS RIGHT: The singular verb form, is, pairs correctly with the
singular subject, list.
To find out more about matching singular subjects to singular verb forms and
plural subjects to plural verb forms, check out Chapter 11.
Complements and descriptions
Your thoughts are rich and varied. You want to say more than “Mary is” or “I
run.” Some elements, called complements, complete ideas. Take a peek at
these example sentences. The complements are underlined:
Mary is happy.
Deborah mailed the letter.
Cathy and Drew are always nervous in the dentist’s office.
Give Jean her pizza.
Did you tell Barbara the secret?
Usually, complements fall into place correctly. Pronouns can cause problems
when they act as complements. (Have you noticed that pronouns are
troublemakers?) For more information on complements, check out Chapter
12. To sort out pronouns, see Chapter 4.
Your writing would be very boring without descriptions. Notice the
underlined descriptions in these examples:
Every morning I run through the park.
Pink paint covered the bumpy wall.
Silk thread is more expensive than cotton thread.
Wind in that area blows the fallen leaves away.
The book of speeches helped me prepare for graduation.
Singing, the choir entered the church.
As you see, descriptions come in many shapes and sizes. Chapter 6 explains
what type of description is best for every situation.
Small but Important: Punctuating,
Capitalizing, and Spelling
Punctuation marks, capital letters, and spelling may seem unimportant. Do
not overlook these little things, though. They add more to your writing than
you may expect. Take punctuation, for example. Some years ago, senators in
a state government debated the placement of a comma for several hours. With
the comma, the law had one meaning. Without it, the law was completely
different! This section gives you an overview of punctuation, capitalization,
and spelling.
Punctuation
I once saw a television show in which something similar to this conversation
took place:
Angel (waving a thick stack of paper): I am writing a book.
Angel’s friend (looking at the first page): What is this? I cannot read it.
There is no punctuation.
Angel: Oh, I will worry about that stuff later.
Angel’s friend: I do not think so! You need punctuation now!
Angel’s friend is right. You cannot read without punctuation, the little marks
that show the reader where to pause, when someone is speaking, and so on.
These are the basic punctuation marks that you should know:
Apostrophe: This is a little curved hook above the line. An apostrophe,
along with the letter s, shows possession:
Ellen’s car (Ellen owns the car.)
the boys’ locker room (The locker room belongs to the boys.)
my cousin’s shoes (My cousin owns the shoes.)
the Vice President’s staff (The staff belongs to the Vice President.)
states’ rights (The rights belong to the states.)
Apostrophes also shorten words:
Annie doesn’t ice skate. (Here, doesn’t is short for does not)
I’m excited that vacation is finally here. (I’m is short for I am.)
Olivia couldn’t go on the roller coaster. (In this sentence, couldn’t
is short for could not.)
Isn’t that lemonade too cold? (Isn’t is short for is not.)
To learn more about apostrophes, turn to Chapter 14.
Period, question mark, exclamation point: These three punctuation
marks signal the end of a sentence. A period is a little dot. It follows a
sentence that makes a statement. A question mark is made from a curve
and a dot. It follows a sentence that asks a question. An exclamation point
is a vertical line and a dot. It shows emphasis — the punctuation mark
that shouts. Look at these punctuation marks in action:
Mary’s socks are blue. (The period ends the statement.)
Are Tim’s shoes blue also? (The question mark ends the question.)
No, they are not! (The exclamation point adds emphasis.)
To learn more about these three important punctuation marks, see Chapter
13.
Comma: This little curved hook starts on the line and reaches below. A
comma tells the reader to pause. Notice the commas in these sentences:
Katie, my friend, is visiting from Chicago.
Katie arrived yesterday, but she has to leave tomorrow.
Chicago, which is in the state of Illinois, is a large city.
Tim, have you ever visited Chicago?
If you read these sentences aloud, you can hear the short silences that
appear at each comma. If commas trouble you, check out Chapter 15.
Quotation marks: Quotation marks are pairs of curved marks that appear
above the line. Their most common job is to mark off the exact words that
someone said or wrote. Notice the quotation marks in these examples:
“Be quiet,” said the librarian.
The children cried, “We were not very loud.”
“In the library,” replied the librarian, “any noise is too loud.”
To use quotation marks properly, you must follow many rules. Turn to
Chapter 16 for everything you need to know about quotation marks.
Capitalization
Have you ever seen a very old piece of writing? Capital letters show up in
strange places. The Declaration of Independence is more than 200 years old.
In the middle of one sentence, you see a famous phrase:
the pursuit of Happiness
These days, happiness would appear in lowercase (noncapitals). The
Founders of the country could place a capital wherever they wanted. You do
not have the same freedom. You must follow the rules. Glance at these
situations, which require capital letters:
Speaker or writer: The pronoun I always refers to the person who is
writing. It is always capitalized. Check these examples:
When I am asleep, I do not snore.
Gene and I love to sail on the lake.
Do I have to pay extra for my suitcase?
By the way, poets sometimes place the pronoun I in lowercase. Poets
break rules whenever they wish. Outside of a poem, however, use a
capital letter for I.
First word in a sentence: A capital letter begins every sentence. The
letter serves as a signal that one sentence has ended and another has
begun. Read these examples:
Nana sings to the baby. She has a terrible voice! The baby does not
mind. He loves her anyway.
Palm trees grow in my yard. Warm weather suits them. Rain
storms water the trees. They require little care.
Are you curious about numbers? You cannot capitalize 22 or 15
or any numeral. So what happens when a number appears at the beginning
of a sentence? Good question! The answer is that you should not begin a
sentence with a numeral. If you need a number there, use the word:
WRONG: 22 people live in that building.
RIGHT: Twenty-two people live in that building.
Names: I am Geraldine Woods, not geraldine woods. Nearly all names
require capital letters. (Some companies choose lowercase letters for
products. The iPad is an example of a name that does not begin with a
capital letter.)
Of course, these are not the only rules that govern capital letters. Turn to
Chapter 17 for more information.
Spelling
In silly television shows, spell is a magic word. In grammar, spell is also a
magic word. Spelling — placing every letter in the right spot — is important.
Take a close look at the following paragraph. Can you identify five
misspelled words?
Jenny enjoys sewing. She pushs the needle into the cloth with her thum.
Tina, who is makeing a new skirt, offen chats with Jenny wen they sew.
Before you check your answers, think for a moment. The preceding
paragraph contains proper sentences. It clearly states the facts. Yet it is not a
good piece of writing. The misspelled words turn a good paragraph into a bad
one. Here are the correctly spelled words: pushes, thumb, making, often,
when.
In Chapter 21, you find some rules for English spelling. Unfortunately, many,
many English words do not follow those rules. To check your spelling, you
may need help from the dictionary. Chapter 21 also explains how to
understand and use the dictionary.
Many words sound the same but have different spelling and meaning.
Other words are nearly alike in appearance or sound, but their
definitions are not alike. Check Chapter 22 for help with these confusing
words.
Facing Everyday Writing Tasks
Do you spend a lot of time sitting at a desk? If you do, you probably face
writing tasks such as these:
School assignments: You write an essay on an exam or for homework.
You answer questions basked on a reading assignment. Perhaps you have
to write a book review or a lab report. Your teacher may ask for a research
paper or a short story. All these writing jobs call for good grammar. All
follow patterns that are easy to learn. Knowing proper English and
formatting will raise your grades.
Work-related writing: You send a memo to your co-workers or to your
supervisor. The boss wants a report or a presentation. Perhaps it is your
responsibility to answer emails or letters from customers. In the business
world, good writing is expected — and often rewarded. Grammar rules
apply to every writing task in the working world. Knowing the best
format for each type of writing is also important.
Personal writing: Outside of school and work, you may write a note to a
friend. Perhaps you must send a letter to a landlord or a government
official. You probably email or text friends and family members. In many
situations, informal language and nonstandard grammar are fine. In
others, you need your best writing skills.
When you face an everyday writing task, you should understand the rules and
traditions that apply to it. Chapters 18, 19, and 20 tell you everything you
need to complete your writing work easily and effectively. Explanations of
the newer forms of communication — texts and slide presentations, for
example — appear in these chapters also.
Sometimes it is fine to bend the rules of grammar and to use informal
language. For example, would you send this text to a friend?
Would you accompany me to the cafeteria at your earliest convenience?
Or, is this your reply when your friend asks, “Who’s there?”
It is I.
If you answered “yes,” you probably eat alone and receive very few phone
calls. With friends, proper grammar may turn a fun social occasion into
something more formal. To find out more about when proper English is
required and when you should relax the rules, see Chapter 2.
Mom and Dad
Because the ancient Romans once ruled a huge empire, babies are born in maternity wards.
For the same reason, fathers may take a paternity test to prove that they are, indeed, fathers.
These words come from Latin, the language of ancient Rome. Mater and matr are word parts
associated with motherhood. Pater and patri are word parts associated with fatherhood. Here
are some members of this word family:
Maternity means “motherhood.” “Pregnant women go to the maternity ward.”
A matriarch is the “female head of a family.” “The aunts and uncles often went to
Great Grandmother, the matriarch, for advice.”
Maternal means “motherly, relating to the mother.” “Her maternal feelings grew as
she held her new baby.”
A matron is “a married woman, a woman in charge of children.” “The children in the
audience were afraid of the matron, who watched them carefully.”
Paternity means “fatherhood.” “The paternity test showed that he was the baby’s
father.”
A patriarch is the “male head of a family.” “Every Sunday, they had dinner with
Oliver, the patriarch of their family.”
Paternal means “fatherly, relating to the father.” “Her paternal grandfather was ill, so
she immediately flew to Florida, where her father’s family lived.”
Keep your eye out for “mom and dad” words as you read. Add any you find to your personal
vocabulary list.
Very nice collection which you have. Keep it up dear.
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